Italy

The use of the BEPS Country by Country Report for the purpose of

representing the structure of MNEs and recording the economic flows

between units for estimating GDP and GNI

Geneva, April 25 th , 2023

UNECE - MEETING OF THE GROUP OF EXPERTS ON NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

GIANNA GRECA

STEFANIA CUICCHIO

Istat | National Accounts

o Introduction

o Base Erosion and Profit Shifting - BEPS

o BEPS Country by Country Report

o Methodology

o Case study and results

o Conclusions

o Way forward

Contents

THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO2

o Country-by-Country reporting was implemented as part of Action 13 of the OECD/G20 BEPS Project to support jurisdictions in fighting base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS).

o While the main purpose of Country-by-Country Reports (CbCRs) is supporting tax administrations in high-level detection and assessment of transfer pricing and other BEPS-related risks, data collected from CbCRs can also play a relevant

role in supporting the economic and statistical analyses of multinational enterprises (MNEs).

o The contribution of this work is to demonstrate, for the first time in the currently developed literature, how the use of the

BEPS Country by Country Report - with reference to both qualitative information and quantitative data - can allow getting to an overall representation and exhaustive analysis of a MNE, the identification of the economic flows between the units of a multinational group and, thus, obtaining more information for a correct estimate of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and the GNI (Gross National Income).

o This work describes:

 the analysis carried out on the features of the BEPS Country by Country Report and on the information and data that can be inferred from it;

 the methodology that has been defined and to be applied for the use of the BEPS Country by Country Report;

 the application to a case study and the obtained results.

Introduction

3 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

o The "Base Erosion and Profit Shifting - BEPS" project has been developed by OECD at the instigation of the G20 to counter "the erosion of the tax base and the shifting of profits". It proposes to bring out the tax base of multinational

enterprises (MNEs) in the jurisdictions where activities are carried out, in proportion to value creation. "Base Erosion" indicates the loss of tax revenue of a country caused by "profit shifting", i.e. the reallocation of the tax base of companies obtained through the creation of contractual and corporate structures in order to minimize the levy on the company's overall income.

o The BEPS action plan is divided into 15 points (Action). Action 13 calls for the development of “rules regarding transfer pricing documentation to enhance transparency for tax administration, taking into consideration the compliance costs for

business. The rules to be developed include a requirement that MNEs provide all relevant governments with the needed information on their global allocation of income, economic activity and taxes paid among countries according to a common template”.

o Based on BEPS Action 13, large multinational enterprises are required to prepare a country-by-country report, the so- called "BEPS Country-by-Country Report", with aggregated data on the global breakdown of income, profit, taxes paid and economic activity between the tax jurisdictions in which they operate. The report is shared with tax administrations in

such jurisdictions, for the purpose of determining transfer pricing and BEPS risk assessments.

Base Erosion and Profit Shifting - BEPS

4 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

o Under the BEPS the MNEs are required to draw up “BEPS Country-by-Country Report” (CbCR). More specifically, MNEs with annual consolidated group revenue equal to or greater than 750 million euros (or an approximately equivalent amount

in local currency) are required to draft the CbCR, annually and per each tax jurisdiction in which they operate, indicating the amount of revenue, profit before income taxes, income taxes paid and accrued, the number of employees, the declared capital, the accumulated earnings and the tangible assets in each tax jurisdiction (according to the model shown in Table 1).

BEPS Country by Country Report (1/4)

5 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Table 1. Overview of allocation of income, taxes and business activities by tax jurisdiction

Source: OCSE

Model template for a Country-by-Country Report

o In addition, MNEs are required to identify each entity within the group carrying on business in a particular jurisdiction tax and to provide an indication of the business activities in which each entity is involved (according to the model shown in

Table 2).

BEPS Country by Country Report (2/4)

6 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Table 2. List of all the Constituent Entities of the MNE group included in each aggregation per tax jurisdiction

Source: OCSE

7 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

BEPS Country by Country Report (3/4)

o In Italy, according to the law n. 208/2015, implemented by the Decree 23/2017 of the Ministry of Economy and Finance, the MNEs send the data annually to the Tax Revenue Agency relating to the jurisdictions of operation of its group in

accordance with the model of CbCR reporting.

o According to Decree 23/2017, a “group of multinational companies or group multinational” is defined as :

• “any group, other than an excluded multinational group, which includes two or more companies with tax

residence in different jurisdictions, or an enterprise resident for tax purposes in one jurisdiction and subject to

tax in another for the activities carried out there through a permanent establishment".

o In particular, an "entity belonging to the group" is intended as:

a) a separate enterprise of a multinational group that is included in the Consolidated Financial Statements of a group for financial

reporting purposes, or that would be included if the stakes in the capital of that company were traded on regulated markets;

b) an enterprise excluded from the Consolidated Financial Statements of the multinational group solely because of its size or on the basis of the principle of materiality;

c) a permanent establishment of a separate company of the multinational group referred to in letters a) or b) above, required to draw up

separate financial statements for financial reporting purposes or for regulatory, tax or auditing purposes internal management.

The "reporting entity" is defined as “the ultimate parent company, the deputy of the parent company or any entity belonging to the group,

required to submit in its own jurisdiction of tax residence a CbCR on behalf of the multinational group".

8 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

BEPS Country by Country Report (4/4)

o The duty to submit the CbCR to the Tax Revenue Agency is in charge with:

• each parent company of a multinational group residing in the territory of the Country;

• an entity belonging to the multinational group different from the parent company group leader when:

a) the entity belonging to the multinational group is resident within the territory of the Country;

b) one of the following conditions occurs:

− the parent company of the multinational group is not obliged to present the CbCR in its own jurisdiction of tax residence;

− in the parent company’s tax residence jurisdiction an international agreement is in force with Italy, but on the

deadline date for the declaration submitting, there is not any specific agreement in force providing for the automatic exchange of country-by-country reports;

− there has been a systemic default of the jurisdiction of residence of the parent company, communicated by the Tax Revenue Agency to the entity belonging to the multinational group resident in the territory of the Country.

As established by Decree 23/2017, starting from the tax period beginning on 1 st

January 2016, the “parent company of a

multinational group” or other group entity as specified above residing in the territory of the Country is obliged to submit a CbCR to the Tax Revenue Agency.

9 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Methodology (1/3)

o The developed methodology is applicable and extendable to any MNE for which CbCR data and other statistical and administrative sources are available at Statistical Offices and Central Banks.

Main sources:

 CbCR

 Consolidated Financial Statements

 EGR (Euro Groups Register on multinational enterprise groups) – Istat

 Orbis – Bureau Van Dijk

 Survey on the economic accounts of enterprises - Istat

 Survey on small and medium-sized enterprises - Istat

 Foreign trade survey - Istat

 Statistical survey on research and development in enterprises – Istat

 Survey on the turnover and orders of the industry - Istat

 Balance of payments – Bank of Italy

The joint use of the CbCR together with other

available sources has made it possible to get to

the mapping of the overall structure of the MNE

and to a first representation of the main

economic flows.

10 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Methodology (2/3)

Step 1)

The following information is identified and extracted from data reported in the CbCR:

For each country:

1) each entity belonging to the group as a company: each company operating in the territory, together with the indication of the

activity it carries out (based on those defined in the Tax Revenues Agency template), which is resident in the tax jurisdiction of the

country;

2) each entity belonging to the group as a branch: each branch (defined as Permanent Establishment - PE) operating in the territory

with an indication of the activity it carries out (on the basis of those defined in Tax Revenues Agency template) and which is resident in

the tax jurisdiction of the country;

3) for each branch (PE), in addition to the tax jurisdiction in which it is located and operates, the tax jurisdiction of the legal entity to

which it belongs;

4) the aggregated data of all entities belonging to the group regarding revenues, profits (losses) before income taxes, income taxes

paid and accrued, the declared capital, retained earnings, number of employees and tangible fixed assets other than cash or cash

equivalents, separate between group’s related parties (intra-group transactions) and unrelated parties (transactions with third parties);

5) for branches, retained earnings are disclosed in the tax residence jurisdiction of the legal entity to which the branch belongs.

The methodology consists of three steps:

11 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Methodology (3/3)

Step 2)

The link between the individual entities belonging to the group reported in the CbCR and the subsidiaries reported

in the Consolidated Financial Statements of the MNE allows to identify the parent company and the corresponding

percentage of control.

Step 3)

The joint use of the CbCR data together with other available sources, such as EGR, Orbis, FATS, etc., allows to

integrate the previous information getting to the overall group structure and to a first representation of economic

flows.

National Accounts’ microdata and Central bank of Italy’s data make it possible integrating the previous information

thus getting to the overall group structure and to a correct representation and registration of flows in National Economic

Accounts and in Balance of Payments.

12 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Case study and results (1/4)

o The methodology has been developed and applied to a MNE operating in the energy sector. This MNE publishes the CbCR on its website.

MNE Country by Country Report

AFRICA

Source: MNE CbCR

MNE Group constituent entities included in the tax jurisdiction

COUNTRY 1

Entity 1

Entity 2

…

Entity n – Permanent establishment

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A database integrating all information from various sources was built.

Only some of the variables entered in the database are reported below.

COUNTRY x (x=1,2, …, n)

Other

variables (value

added, FDI,

etc.)

NACE code

EGR_IDPresence

in EGR

BranchParent

company

Business

activity

Tax

jurisdiction

(= operational

headquarters)

Resident

Tax

jurisdiction

MNE constituent

entities

…xxYes/NoYes/NoxxxxEntity 1 …Yes/NoYes/NoxxxxEntity 2 …Yes/NoYes/NoxxxxEntity 3

… …Yes/NoYes/NoxxxxEntity n

.

Case study and results (2/4)

o Through the information of the CbCR it was possible to identify:

 a greater number of branches in Europe than those identified with the EGR source;

 all branches in non-European countries.

o For the MNE, with reference to 2018, have been identified about 100 branches:

 24% of the total branches in Europe;

 76% of the total branches in non-European countries;

Only 16% of the total branches of the MNE has been identified through EGR source and only whith reference to European countries.

14

Case study and results (3/4)

THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

The «information power» of the CbCR is greater than other information sources currently available.

In fact, CbCR data:

o guided and facilitated the analysis of the MNE in the world;

o provided data consistent with the MNE consolidated financial statement;

o made it possible interpreting statistical information that initially seemed inconsistent;

o have made it possible bringing into coherence information coming from the various sources.

15

Case study and results (4/4)

THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

16 THE USE OF THE BEPS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT | GRECA - CUICCHIO

Conclusions

The information and data that can be inferred from the CbCR have specific innovative characteristics compared to other

existing sources and allow, above all, getting to a far more complete representation of the activities and flows of the MNEs.

In particular, they:

o have a greater degree of geographic coverage than other available sources (for instance compared to the Orbis source

which has good coverage for European Union companies), as companies are required to report the activities they carry

out for single jurisdiction in the world (therefore also United States, developing countries and investment hubs such as the

UK);

o include for each country data on reported profits and total revenues, broken down by related and unrelated parties,

with a greater degree of geographic coverage than other available data sources;

o provide a clear and comprehensive representation of the multinational group, as the information is declared directly

by the MNE which therefore provides the information about its global activities together with the link between the “entities”

within the group;

o provide information not only on the activities carried out abroad but also in the country of tax residency;

o allow comparability between countries, since the CbCR is developed according to an international standard.

Istat is evaluating the possibility of acquiring CbCR source from Italian Tax Revenue Agency in order to extend its application

to all MNEs and to systematically use such source into the procedures for elaborating Registers, Structural Statics and

National Accounts estimates.

Thank you GIANNA GRECA | [email protected]

STEFANIA CUICCHIO | [email protected]

*Prepared by Carolina Facioni, Maria Clelia Romano and Anna Villa

NOTE: The designations employed in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part

of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its

authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Economic Commission for Europe

Conference of European Statisticians

Group of Experts on Gender Statistics Geneva, Switzerland, 10-12 May 2023

Item C of the provisional agenda

Gender, climate, and the environment

Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

Note by Italian national Institute of Statistics*

Abstract

The Italian National Institute of Statistics annually carries out the Multipurpose Survey

“Aspects of daily life” which collects information about the habits of citizens and the quality

of their life, both at individual and household level. A set of questions focuses on the citizens’

opinions about environmental problems and eco-friendly behaviours. The paper aims to

combine the environment-related main results of the survey with a gender-based approach.

The main findings show the cross-cutting nature of environmental concerns but also the

differences between men and women in adopting sustainable and responsible behaviours.

Women, of any age and educational level, are more inclined to adopt eco-responsible

behaviours. The data analysed already provide a helpful informative framework for

policymakers. However, for supporting more effective awareness-raising policies, further

investments are needed both in the analysis of available data and in the production of more

gender-based and gender-sensitive indicators. In this regard, the results represent a starting

point for a renewed reflection on the contribution that official statistics can give in order to

enrich environmental statistics according to a gender perspective.

Working paper 8/Rev.2

Distr.: General

08 May 2023

English

Working paper Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

2

I. Introduction

Collective awareness of gender inequality and its importance in public policy has grown,

both at national and international level. There is a similar (maybe greater) increase in

awareness of environmental emergencies such as pollution, climate change, shrinking

biodiversity and the increasing damage to the oceans and seas. But the link between gender

and environmental statistics has yet to be explored and the integration of the gender

dimension in environmental statistics programmes has yet to be constructed to become a key

component of official statistics work plans. A basic challenge for addressing and leveraging

the gender-environment nexus is gathering the necessary evidence for informed policy

decisions1.

There are a number of international initiatives to further develop gender-disaggregation of

environmental data. Many of them focus on developing countries where data availability is

more limited. But the lack of data is a key challenge to overcome even in developed

countries. If policy makers have to leverage and address the gender-environment nexus,

further efforts are also needed in advanced economies, and official statistics can play an

important role.

The Italian National Institute of Statistics (Istat) has long been committed to this topics,

being aware of the importance of measuring the citizens' sensitivity to environmental issues

and identifying the related factors. The lifestyles and consumption patterns, the opinions and

attitudes that guide both choices and behaviours determine an impact on the environment of

great importance for sustainability. The aim of the paper is to present the main Istat sources

of information about attitudes and behaviours environment related and to focus on some first

evidences resulting from a gender-based analysis. The first part emphasises the citizens'

views on the environmental issues that most concern them. In the second part, the focus is

on some of eco-friendly behaviours and habits (purchasing behaviours, means of transport

for commuting, etc.). Reading the data by gender and in their evolution over time provides

interesting food for thought. It is an ongoing work in its early stages. However, the results

confirm the need for official statistics to invest more both in the analysis of available data,

exploring features not yet or little investigated, and in data collection systems more oriented

to the production of gender statistics, in order to provide a clearer and more detailed

information framework to policymakers even on this topic.

II. The relationships between population and environment: the Istat main sources

The Istat sample surveys on households represent the most suitable information context for

deepening the relationship between population and environment. Main sources on this topic

are the “Household energy consumption” survey and the Multipurpose survey “Aspects of

daily life”.

The purpose of the Household energy consumption survey is to obtain information and to

produce statistical data on household energy endowments, that is on plants and equipment

that consume energy in homes and how they are used in daily life. The survey results

provide a comprehensive picture of the energy consumption and energy characteristics of the

residential sector, useful to the community and to the institutions to prepare interventions

1 See Oecd (2021).

Working paper

3

aimed at protecting the quality of the environment and meeting the national and European

climate change mitigation goals2. The survey is carried out through a household interview,

so the results are not suitable for a gender analysis3.

The Multipurpose survey “Aspects of daily life” has been annually carried out since 1993,

on a household sample. It consists both in an individual interview of each household

member and in a household interview. The collected information allows to know the habits

of citizens, the problems they face every day and their satisfaction with the functioning of

public utilities that should contribute to improve the quality of life. School, work, family life

and relationships, housing and the neighbourhood, leisure, political and social participation,

health, lifestyles are the main topics covered. So, it is a very important source to monitor the

changes in everyday life, also with regard to environmental issues. Because of the growing

importance of environmental issues and the need to highlight the point of view of citizens,

for the first time in 1998, and with continuity since 2012, data and indicators include also

several relevant environmental issues. More in detail, at the individual level (persons aged

14 years or more) the topics related to environment are: Satisfaction with the environmental

situation (air, water, noise, etc.) of the area in which citizens live and opinions on the

degradation of the landscape; Concerns about environmental issues; Transport/mobility;

Eco-friendly behaviours. At the household level: Electricity and gas (quality of supply

services); Water (quality of supply services, mineral water consumption, etc.); Waste

(separate collection/composting)4.

This source, thanks to the many other data collected at the individual and household level,

gives a very helpful picture for policy makers in order to address awareness-raising policies

on such emerging issues.

III. Concerns for environmental issues

In the survey on Aspects of daily life, a set of questions addressed to individuals aged 14 and

over focus on the environmental problems causing worries (from climate change, to various

forms of pollution, to the consequences of unsustainable exploitation of natural resources,

etc.). In line with the results in previous years, in 2021 climate change and air pollution

remain at the top of environmental concerns. These topics are respectively reported by

52.3% and 51.5% of the population (Graph 1). Slightly detached, in third place there is the

concern for the disposal and production of waste (44.1% of over14). Additional global

environmental risk factors are perceived in water pollution (40.1%) and the greenhouse

effect and ozone hole (34.9%). The other environmental problems concern less than three

out of 10 people.

2 The main topics investigated are: the characteristics of the dwelling, the plants available to households as home

heating, water heating, air conditioning (number, type of fuel, uses by households, etc.), the

consumption of firewood, pellets and other types of biomass, lighting systems and household

appliances (number, type, characteristics and use), the expenses for energy use (electricity, natural

gas, LPG, etc.). There is therefore a specific focus on energy issues, increasingly relevant for the

sustainable development of contemporary societies, both with regard to the availability of natural

sources, and in terms of environmental impact. For more information, see

https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/58343. 3 The last edition was conducted in 2020. 4 For more details see: https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/91926

Working paper Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

4

Overall, citizens do not merely point to a single problem, but express concern about various

environmental problems: the majority of men and women (59.9%, 60.4%) indicate 5

problems (the maximum they could indicate in the questionnaire).

Graph 1. Population aged 14 and over by environmental issues of concern and gender. Year

2021. Percentages.

Source: Istat, Aspects of everyday life

There are no significant gender differences in the perception of environmental problems.

There is only a slightly more widespread concern among women for Human-made disasters

(+2.3 percentage points) and Extinction of some plant/animal species (+1.7) and, at the same

time, a greater concern of men for the destruction of forests (+1.5).

More differences emerge considering other socio-demographic variables: age, education,

territory. Although the ranking of the first five problems is the same in the various age

groups, age is a key factor in the variability of environmental concerns. Young people up to

34 years are more worried than other age groups about biodiversity loss (32.1% between 14

and 34 years against 20.9% of over55), forest destruction (26.2% against 20.1%) and

depletion of natural resources (24.7% against 15.9%). On the other hand, compared to young

people, the citizens aged over 50 years report to be more concerned about hydrogeological

instability (26.3% against 17.0% of under 35) and soil pollution (23.7% against 20.8%). The

slight gender differences emerged in the whole population increase among youngest people

(14-24 years): 27.5% of girls express concern for Human-made disaster, compared to 23.4%

of their peers. The difference rises to almost 10 percentage points for extinction of some

plant/animal species (38.6% compared to 29.3% of boys).

Analysing the total number of issues by age, some gender differences emerge. Women under

55 more often than men in the same age class indicate 5 issues of concerns (Graph 2). The

young women are again the most worried group: 65.3% of women aged 14-24 years indicate

5 environmental problems (compared to 59% of peers).

For many issues the share of citizens expressing concerns grows with increasing educational

qualifications. Differences are particularly high in the case of climate change (61.2% among

graduates compared to 46.8% among people with at most a lower secondary school

diploma), the production and disposal of waste (54.1% compared to 38.3%) and water

pollution (46.8% against 36.5%). More generally, only 1.5% of graduates do not express any

concern, compared to 2.2% of people with upper secondary educational level and 4.5% of

those with at most a lower secondary level of education. Conversely, only 50.6% of the less

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Working paper

5

educated people indicate five problems, compared to a much higher share among graduates

(74%). The differences in educational qualifications concern women and men to a similar

extent.

Graph 2. Population aged 14 and over who indicated 5 environmental issues of concerns by

gender and class of age. Year 2021. Percentages.

Source: Istat, Aspects of everyday life

Even the territorial analysis brings out difference. People living in the cities are more

concerned about air and noise pollution and waste disposal systems, while people living in

small municipalities are more sensitive to soil pollution and hydrogeological instability. The

perception of environmental issues also varies between North and South of Italy: climate

change worries 54.3% of the inhabitants of the North-East compared to 46.5% of Southern

citizens. Water pollution is particularly felt by the inhabitants of the North, much less in the

South, especially in the Islands. Instead, residents of Central and Southern Italy are more

concerned about the production and disposal of waste (47.7% in the Centre, 46.6% in the

South and 40.0% in the North-East) and soil pollution (25.5% in the South and 20.1% in the

North-West).

The trend over time suggests that there is a strong link between the most climate-related

concerns, public debate and media influence. The concern about the greenhouse effect,

which involved almost six people out of 10 (aged 14 and over) in 1998, has fallen by more

than 20 percentage points in 2021, affecting only 34.9% of population (Table 1).

Conversely, the fear of climate change, reported in 1998 by 36.0% of people, rises to 52.2%

(+16 percentage points). Assessing together the two problems - the greenhouse effect and

climate change - it emerges that the attention increased decisively from 2019, when the

protest movements globally started. In 2021, more than 60% of the population expressed at

least one of these concerns (20.7% both).

On the contrary, air pollution has been a constant concern of more than half of citizens for

more than twenty years. About hydrogeological instability, which was among the most

worrisome issues in 1998 (34.3%), the attention to this topic dropped a lot: in 2021 it is

indicated only by 22.0% of the population. The decrease was slightly more noticeable for

women - 12.6 percentage points compared with 10.5 percentage points among men. This

trend is even more difficult to explain in the light of the geomorphological features of the

Italian territory where landslides, floods, coastal erosions etc., are very frequent phenomena,

intensified in recent years, also because of global warming.

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14-24 25-34 35-54 55-64 65+ Total

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Working paper Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

6

Table 1. Population aged 14 and over by top 5 environmental issues of concern.

Years 1998, 2012, 2021. Percentages

Issue of concern 1998 Issue of concern 2012 Issue of concern 2021

Greenhouse effect,

ozone hole

57.9 Air pollution 50.0 Climate change 52.2

Air pollution 50.8 Climate change 47.0 Air pollution 51.5

Pollution of rivers, seas,

etc.

40.1 Waste production and

disposal

46.9 Waste production and

disposal

44.1

Waste production and

disposal

39.4 Pollution of rivers, seas,

etc.

37.0 Pollution of rivers, seas,

etc

40.1

Climate change 36.0 Greenhouse effect,

ozone hole

34.9 Greenhouse effect, ozone

hole

34.9

Source: Istat, Aspects of everyday life

With regard to the problems related to soil pollution, water pollution and the destruction of

forests, in the years considered the problem most felt by the population was water pollution

which continue to affect about 40% of the population. The destruction of forests, which

worried 25.2% of the population in 1998, fell to 22.3% in 2021. However, this decrease is

observed only among men (- 4.4 points), while the figure remains stable for women. The

percentage of those who consider soil pollution as one of the five environmental main

priorities slightly increases (from 20.3% to 22.9%). The concern for waste production and

disposal, increasing from 1998 to 2012, drops slightly in 2021, probably thanks to the

improvements in the separate collection (44.1%).

As evident in the Graph 3, which shows the difference in percentage points between 2021

and 2012, these dynamics over time relate both men and women. The intensity of change is

also very similar, except for the before mentioned worries about hydrogeological instability

and deforestation.

Graph 3. Changes in concerns for environmental issues by gender. Years 2012 and

2021. Difference (2021-2012) in percentage points.

Source: Istat, Aspects of everyday life

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Working paper

7

Although there is a widespread awareness of environmental problems, the majority of the

population is satisfied with the environmental situation (air, water, noise) of the area they

live in. The figure remains stable over the years (72.4% in 2021, 71.2 in 2012) and there are

no significant gender differences. 72.1 of men and 72.7% of women declare themselves very

or quite satisfied. Even the analysis by age classes and educational level shows no

significant differences. It would seem that environmental problems, although worrying most

of the population, are still deemed as general problems with little impact on the perceived

quality of the environment in which they live.

In short, women and men share environmental concerns without significant differences.

However young and adult women indicate more concerns than men. Girls aged between 14

and 24 appear to be particularly sensitive to environmental issues. The widespread of the

concerns changes according to territory and, mainly, educational level.

IV. Eco-friendly behaviours

In addition to opinions and attitudes, it is also important to monitor the resulting behaviours.

Most studies claim that women are more likely to be environmentally conscious since they

engage more in pro-environmental behaviour, for example because they are more inclined to

recycle and buy greener products, to use alternative modes of transport to private cars5.

A. Pro-environmental behaviours

The spread of environmentally friendly behaviours, aimed at respecting the environment and

safeguarding natural resources, was surveyed in the individual questionnaire. The results

provide very interesting insights. In 2021, the most part of respondents said they routinely

take care not to waste energy (67.6%) or water (65.9%). 49.6% never adopt noisy driving

behaviour, in order to reduce noise pollution. In addition, 37.1% of the population reads the

labels of food products and 24.4% buys zero km products (Graph 4).

Women show more often eco-sustainable behaviours: 18.4% adopt at least 5 of them

compared to 13.7% of men. On the contrary, among men, the percentage of those who do

not take any (16.6 against 12.6% of women) is higher.

By going into the specifics of behaviours, the most evident differences are found above all in

purchasing behaviours: 43.0% of women usually read ingredient labels compared to 30.7%

of men; 17.2% of women (vs 12.3% of men) usually buys food or organic products.

Women are also on average more careful not to waste water (68.5% compared to 63.2% of

men) and energy (69.8% compared to 65.2%).

5 See for example: Aaron R. Brough et alii (2016), Zelezny L. et alii (2000), Zhao Z. et alii (2021).

Working paper Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

8

Graph 4. Persons aged 14 and over by environment-friendly behaviours usually

adopted and gender. Year 2021. Percentage

Source: Istat, Aspects of everyday life

Both among men and women, the percentages of environmentally friendly behaviours are

higher among those aged 35 and over. 52.3% of people between 14 and 34 years does not

waste water, compared to 71.2% of people aged over 55; 50.5% of people under 34

compared to 73.8% of over 55 is careful not to waste energy. On the contrary, regarding the

choice of alternative means of transport to private motor vehicles, the highest percentages

are recorded instead among young people under 34: 22.4% “usually” chooses them against

16.3% of over55.

Gender differences are evident in all age groups: however, by focusing attention on the

younger(14-24 years) some differences increase, highlighting a behaviour of girls much

more respectful of environmental resources (Graph 5), especially in terms of containing

water (+8.5 percentage points compared to boys) and energy wastage (+9.5 percentage

points). A greater sensitivity of girls compared to their male peers is also noted in spending

behaviours, such as reading product labels before buying them (+7.5 points) or buying

organic food and products (+5.8 points).

The educational level has a strong impact on environmentally friendly behaviours. As the

level of education increases, the percentage of citizens who usually adopt them increases.

Among the highest and lowest educational level there are more than 20 percentage points of

difference in the habit of reading product labels, almost 15 points in buying organic products

and about 10 in expressing their preferences for zero km products. Among people with

higher educational level, the propensity of people in being careful not to waste water and

energy is also higher, even if the gap is smaller. In particular, women with high educational

qualifications represent a population sub-group characterized by responsible behaviours and

great attention to the environment. Among women graduates about one out of three adopts at

least 5 pro-environmental behaviours. The ratio drops to 1 out of 5 among men with the

same educational level.

0

10

20

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40

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80

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Being careful

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Watching out

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behavior

Reading food

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buying

Buying

products at zero

kilometer

Choosing

alternative

transport

Buying organic

foods/products

All M F

Working paper

9

Graph 5. Persons aged 14-24 by environment-friendly behaviours usually adopted

and gender. Year 2021. Percentages

Source: Istat, Aspects of everyday life

The greater spread of eco-sustainable behaviour among women could also result from

different gender roles, for example because women do the shopping more frequently than

men or because they are concerned with the household management and, consequently, they

are more brought to monitor household budget by making a more careful use of resources

(water, energy, etc.). By controlling the distribution of behaviours also for the role in the

household, the greater propensity of women to adopt eco-sustainable behaviours does not

concern only those who have a household responsibility (head of the household or his

partner) and, consequently, are often responsible for consumption choices and household

spending behaviours, but also women who live (as daughters) with their parents. It would be

interesting to deepen the determinants of these behaviours through an intra-household

analysis, in order to study the relationships between attitudes and parental behaviours with

attitudes and behaviours of sons and daughters.

Some differences also emerge at the territorial level. In the Northern regions there is a higher

percentage of people who have virtuous habits related to mobility: 52.4% is careful not to

adopt noisy driving behaviour (45.0% in the regions of Southern Italy) and 19.9% chooses

alternative means of transport to private cars or other private motor vehicles (13.9% in the

South and Islands). In the Central regions, a greater attention is paid to read product labels

(39.3% against 35.4% in the South and Islands) and to purchase of organic products (15.7%

compared to 14.4% in the North). Among the residents of the South and Islands, on the other

hand, the frequency of buying food and local products is higher (29.6% compared with

21.1% in the North). The attention not to waste water and energy shows no variability across

the territory.

The results confirm evidences from other studies about the gender differences in pro-

environmental behaviours and green consumption attitudes. Women are more respectful on

environmental resources and gender differences arise among young and highly educated

people.

Being careful

not to waste

water

Being careful

not to waste

energy

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for noisy

behavior

Reading food

labels before

buying them

Choosing

alternative

means of

transport to

private ones

Buying

products at

zero kilometer

Buying

organic foods

and products

M F

Working paper Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

10

B. Sustainable mobility: still much to do

The adoption of a mobility system with low environmental impact, especially in urban areas,

is considered a priority to improve the quality of life of citizens and to protect the planet.

The sustainable mobility is one of the biggest challenges to significantly reduce traffic,

improve air quality, prevent urban degradation and cut energy consumption. Walking,

cycling, using public transport, car sharing, are just a few examples of what is now called

sustainable mobility, that is, the set of virtuous practices suitable for reconciling both the

need to move and to reduce air pollution and noise.

The survey Aspects of daily life collects data also on commuting, giving further food for

thought. In 2021, about 30 millions of people moved every day to reach the place of study or

work: over two thirds of the population moved for work, the remaining third for study

purposes. The percentage of people who reach the workplace by private means remains very

high, with a consequent strong environmental impact: 84.6% of the employed people with

not significant gender differences (84.2 among men and 85.3% among women). The

percentages are very high even when the workplace is in the same municipality where they

live (82.8%): in this case, however, there are two percentage points of difference between

men and women (81.5% of women against 83.6% of men).

Looking at other means of transport, the data show female behaviours more environmental

friendly. Employed women who work within their municipality of residence go to work on

foot more often than employed men: 27.6% against 17.4%. Moreover, the use of public

transport is more widespread among women, regardless of the distance of the place to be

reached (Graph 6): 6.3% of employed women compared with 4.9% of employed men. The

differences concern both travel within the municipality (6.5% against 4.4% of men) and, in

particular, travel over longer distances (13.4% of employed women vs 8.9% of employed

men).

Among adult students the use of private mean of transport is less widespread and gender

differences are wider. 28.5% reaches the school/University by private means (32.1% of men

compared to 25.2% of women). The differences remain even when the place of study is in

the municipality where they live: in this case, however, the number of those who use a

private mean increases both among women and men (42.9% of men and 35% of women).

There are less gender differences in terms of sustainable mobility among the students. 18.8%

of women walk to school/University against 20.2 of male students. Some differences

emerge in using the public transport to go to school (53.6% of student women compared to

50% of student men) (Graph 7). However, considering commuting over short distances, the

differences between men and women in the use of public means are wider: for commuting

within the municipality where they live, 43% of female students use public means compared

to 37.5% of male students.

The sharing both simultaneously (carpooling) and at different times (such as bike and car

sharing) of private vehicles reduces the number of vehicles in circulation and represents a

more sustainable form of transport. Carpooling, that is the sharing of the car with colleagues

of work or study who have to travel the same route, is chosen by 6% of adults who travel for

work or study. This form of mobility, halfway between the use of the collective vehicle and

that of the private vehicle, is more used by men (9.1% against 6% of women). However, it is

interesting to note that among the employed people, men make more use of carpooling

(8.9% compared to 5.2% of women employed), while among the adult students more women

organize themselves with friends to share the cars.

Working paper

11

Graph 6. Employed people aged 18 and over who use public means of transport by

distance from the workplace and gender. Year 2021. Percentages.

Graph 7. Adult students who use public means of transport by distance from the

school and gender. Year 2021. Percentages.

The use of shared mobility is not yet widespread, although growing in recent years. In 2021,

over 600 thousand people aged 18 and over (1.3% of the population) used bike sharing, the

service that allows to rent a bike for a short time. The use of bike sharing is more widespread

among men (1.6% compared to 1% of women), especially if employed (2.2% vs 1.4 of

women). Bike sharing is more widespread in large urban areas, where shares of users double

the average, and in the metropolitan areas where the share of users even exceeds 4 times the

national average.

A similar amount of people aged 18 and over (more than 600,000) used the car sharing (the

service that allows to pick up and use a car without the need for personal assistance), at least

once a year, as drivers or passengers. Users account for 1.2% of the adult population: 1.6%

of men compared to 0.8% of women. Car sharing, even more evidently than bike sharing, is

limited to big cities.

4,4 3,6

8,9

4,9 6,5

4,3

13,4

6,3 5,2

3,8

10,0

5,4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Same

municipality

where he/she lives

Same province-

where he/she lives

Greater distance All distances

M F All

37,5 43,7

67,2

50,0 43,0

51,7

65,6

53,6

40,3

48,0

66,3

52,0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Same municipality

where he/she lives

Same province-

where he/she lives

Greater distance All distances

M F All

Working paper Citizens' attitudes and behaviours in environmental matters: a gender-based approach

12

In short, the results show that commuting, especially for work reasons, is still very largely

based on the use of private cars or motorcycles, resulting in a high environmental impact.

Alternative forms of mobility are still little widespread. Differences in male and female

commuting reveal different mobility patterns, both for work and study, and the need for

public transport policies to take these aspects into account. For this purpose, it is necessary

to further investigate the transport needs of men and women, producing more detailed

information for policies supporting active and sustainable mobility.

V. Conclusions

Environment statistics, a relatively new field compared to economic, demographic and social

statistics, has somewhat been gender neutral to date. The data analysed show how important

is to study the relationships between population and environment and the interaction

between gender and environmental sustainability.

Citizens and households are one of the major source of environmental pressure in modern

societies. Studying citizens' sensitivity to environmental issues, the factors related to it, and

how this sensitivity is translated into behaviour is very important for environmental

sustainability policies.

There is still a long way to go. Although most of the population is concerned about many of

the environmental problems, there are still groups of population where this sensitivity must

be built also through awareness-raising policies.

Although the perception of the problems and the satisfaction for the quality of the

environment does not vary significantly between men and women, indicating a strong cross-

cutting nature of these dimensions, gender differences arise, instead, in behaviours. Women

are more likely to have more responsible lifestyles and consumption and to choose

sustainable forms of mobility. Within the households women can play an important role in

raising awareness of the other household members and, in particular, the youngest people.

As next step it will be interesting to study, through an intra-household analysis, the

sensitivity to the environmental issues of the different household members and the

relationships between the perceptions and behaviours of parents and the perceptions and

behaviours of their children.

The issues investigated give an overview useful for awareness-raising policies, but further

insights are needed, both in terms of analysis of available data and for improving data

collection. Hence, it is important e.g. to explore individual behaviour on waste production

and disposal (hitherto surveyed only at household level), to investigate the needs of citizens

in terms of mobility, etc. Just in the light of the different patterns of commuting, it is

possible to design sustainable mobility policies, aimed to be more attentive to the users need

and more effective.

Even official statistics have to invest more in studying the nexus between environment and

individual behaviours, identifying the informative lacks and exploring better the different

impact on the environment of men and women, and their specific needs and priorities.

Working paper

13

References

Aaron R. Brough, James E. B. Wilkie, Jingjing Ma, Mathew S. Isaac, David Gal, Is Eco-

Friendly Unmanly? The Green-Feminine Stereotype and Its Effect on Sustainable

Consumption, Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 43, Issue 4, December 2016, Pages

567–582, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw044

Eurobarometer, Attitudes of Europeans towards the Environment - Special Eurobarometer

501 - Wave EB92.4, March 2020

Istat (2018), Spostamenti quotidiani e nuove forme di mobilità, Statistiche report 29

November.

Istat (2022), Preoccupazioni ambientali e comportamenti ecocompatibili, Statistiche report

14 July.

Oecd (2021), Gender and the Environment: Building Evidence and Policies to Achieve the

SDGs, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3d32ca39-en.

United Nations Environment Programme (2015). Gender equality and the environment:

Policy and strategy. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/7655.

Zelezny L. P.P. Chua and C.Aldrich (2000), New Ways of Thinking about

Environmentalism: Elaborating on Gender Differences in Environmentalism, Journal of

Social Issues, vol.56, pp. 443-457.

Zhao Z., Gong Y., Li Y., Zhang L., Sun Y. (2021) Gender-Related Beliefs, Norms, and the

Link With Green Consumption Frontiers in Psychology, vol.12,

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710239

*Подготовили Каролина Фачиони, Мария Клелия Романо и Анна Вилла

ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: Обозначения в настоящем документе не подразумевают выражения какого-либо мнения

Секретариата Организации Объединенных Наций в отношении юридического положения любой страны,

территории, города или края или их властей или в отношении делимитации ее границ.

Европейская экономическая комиссия

Конференция европейских статистиков

Группа экспертов по гендерной статистике Женева, Швейцария, 10-12 мая 2023 года

Пункт С предварительной повестки дня

Гендер, климат и окружающая среда

Отношение граждан к экологическим проблемам и их поведение: гендерный подход

Записка Итальянского национального института статистики*

Аннотация

Итальянский национальный институт статистики ежегодно проводит многоцелевое

обследование «Аспекты повседневной жизни», в ходе которого собирается информация

о привычках граждан и качестве их жизни, как на индивидуальном уровне, так и на

уровне домохозяйств. Ряд вопросов посвящен мнению граждан о проблемах охраны

окружающей среды и экологичном поведении. В настоящем документе поставлена цель

скомбинировать основные результаты обследования, касающиеся охраны окружающей

среды, и гендерный подход. Основные результаты указывают на сквозной характер

экологических проблем, но при этом еще и на различия между мужчинами и

женщинами в переходе к экологичному и ответственному поведению. Женщины

любого возраста и уровня образования более склонны к экологически ответственному

поведению. Проанализированные данные уже обеспечивают полезную и

информативную базовую информацию для лиц, формирующих политику. Однако для

выработки более эффективной политики повышения информированности необходимы

дальнейшие инвестиции и в анализ доступных данных, и в формирование индикаторов,

в большей степени учитывающих гендерные аспекты и гендерную проблематику. В

этом отношении полученные результаты представляют собой отправную точку для

переосмысления того, как официальная статистика может обогатить статистику

окружающей среды с учетом гендерной проблематики.

Рабочий документ 8

Distr.: General

1 мая 2023 г. 10:00:23

English

Рабочий документ 8

2

I. Введение

Общее осознание гендерного неравенства и серьезного характера этой проблемы с

точки зрения государственной политики растет как на национальном, так и на

международном уровне. Наблюдается аналогичный (а может, и больший) рост

осведомленности об экологических проблемах, таких как загрязнение окружающей

среды, изменение климата, сокращение биоразнообразия и возрастающий ущерб

океанам и морям. Однако связь между гендерной статистикой и статистикой

окружающей среды еще предстоит изучить, а интеграцию гендерного аспекта в

программы экологической статистики еще предстоит реализовать, чтобы он стал

ключевым компонентом рабочих планов официальной статистики. Основной задачей

для рассмотрения и использования взаимосвязи между гендером и окружающей

средой является сбор необходимых данных для обоснования политических решений1.

Существует ряд международных инициатив по дальнейшему развитию дезагрегации

экологических данных по полу респондентов. Многие из них ориентированы на

развивающиеся страны, где доступность данных более ограничена. Но нехватка

данных является ключевой проблемой, которую необходимо преодолеть даже в

развитых странах. Если лицам, принимающим решения, необходимо использовать и

учитывать взаимосвязь между гендером и окружающей средой, дальнейшие усилия

также необходимы в странах с развитой экономикой, и официальная статистика может

сыграть в этом деле важную роль.

Итальянский национальный институт статистики (Истат) уже давно занимается этой

темой, учитывая важность измерения восприятия гражданами экологических проблем

и выявления связанных с этим факторов. Образ жизни и модели потребления, мнения

и отношения, которые обусловливают как предпочтения, так и поведение людей,

определяют воздействие на окружающую среду, что очень важно с точки зрения

устойчивого развития. Цель работы состоит в том, чтобы представить основные

источники информации Истат об отношениях и поведении людей в контексте

окружающей среды и более подробно рассказать о некоторых фактах, полученных в

результате гендерного анализа. В первой части работы основное внимание уделяется

мнению граждан о вопросах экологии, которые их больше всего волнуют. Во второй

части основное внимание уделяется некоторым экологически безопасным моделям

поведения и привычкам (покупательское поведение, транспорт для поездок на работу

и т. д.). Изучение данных в разбивке по полу и в динамике дает интересную пищу для

размышлений. Эта работа продолжается, и мы находимся на ранних стадиях. Тем не

менее, результаты подтверждают, что официальная статистика должна вкладывать

больше в анализ имеющихся данных, изучение еще не изученных или малоизученных

1 См. ОЭСР (2021).

Рабочий документ 8

3

признаков, а также в системы сбора данных, в большей степени ориентированные на

производство гендерной статистики, чтобы обеспечить более четкие и подробные

информационные рамки для политиков в том числе по этой тематике.

II. Отношения между населением и окружающей средой: основные источники Истата

Выборочные обследования домохозяйств Истата представляют собой наиболее

подходящий информационный контекст для поиска взаимосвязи между населением и

вопросами экологии. Основными источниками по этой теме являются обследование

«Потребление энергии домохозяйствами» и многоцелевое обследование «Аспекты

повседневной жизни».

Цель обследования энергопотребления домохозяйств состоит в том, чтобы получить

информацию и подготовить статистические данные об обеспеченности домохозяйств

энергией, то есть об оборудовании, которое потребляет энергию в домах, и о том, как

оно используется в повседневной жизни. Результаты опроса дают исчерпывающую

картину энергопотребления и энергетических характеристик жилого сектора, что

позволяет обществу и организациям подготавливать мероприятия, направленные на

охрану качественной окружающей среды и достижение национальных и европейских

целей по смягчению последствий изменения климата2. Обследование проводится

методом опроса домохозяйств, поэтому результаты не подходят для гендерного

анализа3.

Многоцелевое обследование «Аспекты повседневной жизни» проводится ежегодно с

1993 года на выборке домохозяйств. Оно заключается как в индивидуальном опросе

каждого члена домохозяйства, так и в опросе целого домохозяйства. Собранная

информация позволяет узнать привычки граждан, проблемы, с которыми они

сталкиваются каждый день, и их удовлетворенность работой коммунальных служб,

что должно способствовать повышению качества жизни. Школа, работа, семейная

жизнь и отношения, жилье и район, досуг, участие в политической и общественной

жизни, здоровье, образ жизни - вот основные темы, которые охватывает обследование.

Таким образом, это очень важный источник для отслеживания изменений в

повседневной жизни, в том числе в том, что касается экологических проблем. В связи

с растущей актуальностью экологических проблем и необходимостью освещать

мнения граждан, впервые в 1998 году и постоянно с 2012 года данные и показатели

включают также несколько острых экологических проблем. Если говорить более

подробно, на индивидуальном уровне (лица в возрасте 14 лет и старше) темами,

связанными с окружающей средой, являются: удовлетворенность экологической

2 Основные исследуемые темы: характеристики жилища, установки, доступные домохозяйствам для отопления

дома, нагрева воды, кондиционирования воздуха (количество, тип топлива, использование домохозяйствами и т.

д.), потребление дров, пеллет и других видов биомассы, использование систем освещения и бытовых приборов

(количество, тип, характеристики и использование), затраты на энергопотребление (электричество, природный

газ, сжиженный газ и т.д.). Поэтому особое внимание уделяется вопросам энергетики, все более актуальным для

устойчивого развития современного общества, как в отношении наличия природных источников, так и с точки

зрения воздействия на окружающую среду. Для получения дополнительной информации см.

https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/58343. 3 Последнее издание 2020 года.

Рабочий документ 8

4

обстановкой (воздух, вода, шум и др.) местности, в которой проживают граждане, и

мнение о деградации ландшафта; обеспокоенность экологическими проблемами;

транспорт/мобильность; экологически ответственное поведение. На уровне

домохозяйства: электроэнергия и газ (качество услуг по снабжению); вода (качество

услуг водоснабжения, потребление минеральной воды и др.); отходы (раздельный

сбор/компостирование)4.

Этот источник благодаря множеству других данных, собранных на уровне отдельных

лиц и домохозяйств, создает очень полезную картину, позволяющую лицам,

формирующим политику, заниматься вопросами повышения осведомленности по

таким возникающим проблемам.

III. Обеспокоенность экологическими проблемами

В обследовании «Аспекты повседневной жизни» набор вопросов, адресованных лицам

в возрасте 14 лет и старше, посвящен экологическим проблемам, вызывающим

беспокойство населения (от изменения климата до различных форм загрязнения,

последствий неустойчивой эксплуатации природных ресурсов и т. д.). Как и в

предыдущие годы, в 2021 году изменение климата и загрязнение воздуха остаются

главными экологическими проблемами. Об этих темах сообщают соответственно

52,3% и 51,5% населения (Диаграмма 1). Чуть обособленно, на третьем месте –

обеспокоенность утилизацией и образованием отходов (44,1% населения старше 14

лет). Дополнительными глобальными экологическими факторами риска считаются

загрязнение воды (40,1%), парниковый эффект и озоновая дыра (34,9%). Остальные

экологические проблемы волнуют менее трех человек из десяти.

В целом граждане не просто указывают на одну проблему, а выражают озабоченность

различными экологическими проблемами: большинство мужчин и женщин (59,9%,

60,4%) указывают на 5 проблем (максимум, который они могли указать в анкете).

Существенных гендерных различий в восприятии экологических проблем нет. Среди

женщин лишь немногим более распространена обеспокоенность антропогенными

катастрофами (+2,3 процентных пункта) и вымиранием некоторых видов

растений/животных (+1,7) в то же время мужчины больше обеспокоены

уничтожением лесов (+1,5).

Диаграмма 1. Население в возрасте 14 лет и старше в разбивке по вызывающим

обеспокоенность экологическим проблемам и полу. Год 2021. Процент.

4 Подробнее см.: https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/91926.

Рабочий документ 8

5

Источник: Истат, аспекты повседневной жизни

Больше различий возникает с учетом других социально-демографических

переменных: возраста, образования, территории. Хотя очередность первых пяти

проблем одинакова в различных возрастных группах, возраст респондентов является

ключевым фактором обеспокоенности теми или иными экологическими проблемами.

Молодые люди в возрасте до 34 лет больше других возрастных групп обеспокоены

утратой биоразнообразия (32,1% в возрасте от 14 до 34 лет по сравнению с 20,9%

среди респондентов старше 55 лет), уничтожением лесов (26,2% по сравнению с

20,1%) и истощением природных ресурсов (24,7% по сравнению с 15,9%). С другой

стороны, по сравнению с молодыми людьми граждане старше 50 лет больше

беспокоятся о гидрогеологической нестабильности (26,3% по сравнению с 17,0% для

людей до 35 лет) и загрязнении почв (23,7% по сравнению с 20,8%). Незначительные

гендерные различия проявились среди самых молодых людей (14-24 года):

обеспокоенность техногенными катастрофами выражают 27,5% девушек/женщин по

сравнению с 23,4% их сверстников мужского пола. Разница возрастает почти до 10

процентных пунктов, когда речь заходит об исчезновении некоторых видов

растений/животных (38,6% по сравнению с 29,3% у респондентов мужского пола).

При анализе общего количества проблем в зависимости от возраста проявляются

некоторые гендерные различия. Женщины до 55 лет чаще, чем мужчины той же

возрастной категории, указывают на 5 проблемных вопросов (Диаграмма 2). Молодые

женщины снова являются самой обеспокоенной группой: 65,3% девушек/женщин в

возрасте 14-24 лет указывают на 5 экологических проблем (по сравнению с 59%

сверстников).

По многим вопросам доля граждан, выражающих озабоченность, растет с

повышением уровня образования. Различия особенно велики в том, что касается

проблемы изменения климата (61,2% среди выпускников вузов по сравнению с 46,8%

среди лиц, окончивших максимум неполную среднюю школу), образования и

удаления отходов (54,1% по сравнению с 38,3%) и загрязнения воды (46,8% по

сравнению с 36,5%). В целом, лишь 1,5% выпускников вузов не выражают никакой

озабоченности по сравнению с 3,4% лиц с полным средним образованием и 12,2% лиц

с уровнем образования не выше неполного среднего. И наоборот, 23,7% менее

образованных людей указывают пять проблем по сравнению с почти втрое большим

0

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Рабочий документ 8

6

количеством таких людей среди выпускников (73,8%). Различия в образовательном

уровне касаются женщин и мужчин в одинаковой степени.

Диаграмма 2. Граждане в возрасте от 14 лет, указавшие 5 экологических проблем,

вызывающих обеспокоенность, с разбивкой по полу и возрастной группе. Год 2021.

Процент.

Источник: Истат, Аспекты повседневной жизни

Даже региональный анализ выявляет различия. Горожане больше озабочены

загрязнением воздуха, шумовым загрязнением и системами удаления отходов, а

жители небольших населенных пунктов более чувствительны к проблемам

загрязнения почвы и гидрогеологической нестабильности. Кроме того, восприятие

экологических проблем различается между севером и югом Италии: изменение

климата беспокоит 54,3% жителей северо-востока по сравнению с 46,5% жителей юга.

Загрязнение воды особенно ощущают жители севера, гораздо меньше на юге,

особенно на островах. Зато жителей центральной и южной Италии больше беспокоят

образование и утилизация отходов (47,7% в центре, 46,6% на юге и 40,0% на северо-

востоке) и загрязнение почвы (25,5% на юге и 20,1% на северо-западе страны).

С учетом тенденций во времени предполагается, что существует прочная связь между

большинством проблем, связанных с климатом, общественными дебатами и влиянием

средств массовой информации. Обеспокоенность парниковым эффектом, которая

отмечалась в 1998 году для почти шести человек из 10 (в возрасте 14 лет и старше), в

2021 году снизилась более чем на 20 процентных пунктов и теперь отмечается лишь

для 34,9% населения (таблица 1).

И наоборот, страх перед изменением климата, о котором в 1998 году сообщали 36,0%

людей, возрастает до 52,2% (+16 процентных пунктов). Если оценивать отношение к

обеим проблемам сразу — парниковый эффект и изменение климата — выясняется,

что внимание к ним резко возросло с 2019 года, когда во всем мире начались

протестные движения. В 2021 году более 60% населения сообщили об

обеспокоенности хотя бы одной из этих проблем (20,7% и той, и другой).

Наоборот, загрязнение воздуха вот уже более двадцати лет постоянно беспокоит более

половины граждан. Что касается гидрогеологической нестабильности, которая в 1998

году была одной из наиболее острых проблем (34,3%), то внимание к этой теме сильно

упало: в 2021 году на нее указывает лишь 22,0% населения. Снижение было несколько

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

14-24 25-34 35-54 55-64 65+ Total

M F

Рабочий документ 8

7

более заметным для женщин - 12,6 процентных пункта по сравнению с 10,5

процентных пункта среди мужчин. Эту тенденцию еще труднее объяснить в свете

геоморфологических особенностей территории Италии, где оползни, наводнения,

береговая эрозия и тому подобное — явления очень частые, усилившиеся в последние

годы, в том числе из-за глобального потепления.

Таблица 1. Население в возрасте от 14 лет с разбивкой по 5 самым острым

экологическим проблемам, вызывающим обеспокоенность. Годы 1998,

2012, 2021. Проценты

Проблема,

вызывающая

обеспокоенность

1998 Проблема, вызывающая

обеспокоенность

2012 Проблема,

вызывающая

обеспокоенность

2021

Парниковый эффект,

озоновая дыра

57,9 Загрязнение воздуха 50,0 Изменение климата 52,2

Загрязнение воздуха 50,8 Изменение климата 47,0 Загрязнение воздуха 51,5

Загрязнение рек,

морей и др.

40,1 Образование и

утилизация отходов

46,9 Образование и

утилизация отходов

44,1

Образование и

утилизация отходов

39,4 Загрязнение рек, морей

и др.

37,0 Загрязнение рек, морей

и др.

40,1

Изменение климата 36,0 Парниковый эффект,

озоновая дыра

34,9 Парниковый эффект,

озоновая дыра

34,9

Источник: Истат, Аспекты повседневной жизни

Что касается проблем, связанных с загрязнением почвы, загрязнением воды и

уничтожением лесов, то в рассматриваемые годы проблемой, наиболее остро

ощущаемой населением, было загрязнение воды, от которого по-прежнему страдает

около 40% населения. Уничтожение лесов, которое беспокоило 25,2% населения в

1998 году, в 2021 году беспокоило меньший процент населения - 22,3%. Однако это

снижение наблюдается только для мужчин (- 4,4 пункта), тогда как для женщин

показатель остается стабильным. Несколько увеличивается доля тех, кто считает

загрязнение почвы одним из пяти основных экологических приоритетов (с 20,3% до

22,9%). Обеспокоенность образованием и удалением отходов, возросшая с 1998 по

2012 год, немного сокращается в 2021 году, вероятно, благодаря подвижкам в

раздельном сборе отходов (44,1%).

Как видно на диаграмме 3, на которой показана разница в процентных пунктах между

данными для 2021 года и первого доступного года (1998), эта динамика во времени

касается как мужчин, так и женщин. Интенсивность изменений также очень похожа,

за исключением уже упомянутых опасений по поводу гидрогеологической

нестабильности и обезлесения.

Несмотря на широкое осознание экологических проблем, большинство населения

удовлетворено экологической обстановкой (воздух, вода, шум) района своего

проживания. Показатель остается стабильным по годам (72,4% в 2021 году, 71,2% в

2012 году) и существенных гендерных различий нет. Так, 72,1% мужчин и 72,7%

женщин сообщают о том, что они очень или вполне удовлетворены. Даже анализ по

возрастным группам и уровню образования не показывает существенных различий.

Создается представление, что экологические проблемы, хотя и волнуют большую

часть населения, по-прежнему рассматриваются как общие проблемы для всех, мало

Рабочий документ 8

8

влияющие на воспринимаемое людьми качество окружающей среды, в которой они

живут.

Если говорить вкратце, женщин и мужчин проблемы окружающей среды беспокоят

примерно одинаково. Однако молодые и взрослые женщины выражают больше

обеспокоенности, чем мужчины. Девушки/женщины в возрасте от 14 до 24 лет

особенно остро воспринимают экологические проблемы. Изменения обеспокоенности

в зависимости от региона и главным образом образовательного уровня.

Диаграмма 3. Изменения обеспокоенности экологическими проблемами в

зависимости от пола. Годы 1998 и 2021. Разница (2021-1998) в процентных

пунктах.

Источник: Истат, Аспекты повседневной жизни

IV. Экологически ответственное поведение

В дополнение к мнениям и установкам также важно отслеживать результирующее

поведение. В большинстве исследований утверждается, что женщины с большей

вероятностью осознают проблемы окружающей среды, поскольку они больше

проявляют заботу об окружающей среде, например, потому что они более склонны

повторно использовать ресурсы и покупать более экологичные продукты,

использовать альтернативные виды транспорта вместо личного автомобиля5.

5 См., например: Aaron R. Brough et alii (2016), Zelezny L. et alii (2000), Zhao Z. et alii (2021).

-14 -12 -10

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

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Рабочий документ 8

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A. Экологичное поведение

Распространение экологически ответственного поведения, подразумевающего

бережное отношение к окружающей среде и охрану природных ресурсов, изучалось в

индивидуальном вопроснике. По итогам опросов получены очень интересные

сведения. В 2021 году большая часть респондентов сказали, что обычно стараются не

тратить зря энергию (67,6%) или воду (65,9%). Среди ответивших 49,6% никогда

шумно не водят автомобиль, чтобы уменьшить шумовое загрязнение. Кроме того,

37,1% населения читают этикетки продуктов питания, а 24,4% покупают продукты,

произведенные максимально близко к точке продажи (0 км) (Диаграмма 4).

Женщины чаще демонстрируют экологически ответственное поведение: 22,4%

женщин демонстрируют не менее 5 вариантов такого поведения по сравнению с 17,6%

мужчин. Наоборот, среди мужчин выше процент тех, кто не демонстрирует ни одного

варианта экологически ответственного поведения (15,5 по сравнению с 11,6%

женщин).

Диаграмма 4. Лица 14 лет и старше с разбивкой по вариантам

экологически ответственного поведения и полу. Год 2021. Процент

Источник: Истат, Аспекты повседневной жизни

Если углубиться в особенности поведения, то наиболее очевидные различия

обнаруживаются, прежде всего, в покупательском поведении: 43,0% женщин обычно

читают этикетки с ингредиентами по сравнению с 30,7% мужчин; 17,2% женщин (по

сравнению с 12,3% мужчин) обычно покупают продукты питания или органические

продукты. Женщины также в среднем больше стараются не тратить зря воду (68,5%

по сравнению с 63,2% мужчин) и энергию (69,8% по сравнению с 65,2%).

Как среди мужчин, так и среди женщин процент экологичного поведения выше среди

лиц в возрасте 35 лет и старше. Например, 52,3% людей в возрасте от 14 до 34 лет не

растрачивают без необходимости воду по сравнению с 71,2% людей в возрасте старше

55 лет; 50,5% людей моложе 34 лет по сравнению с 73,8% людей старше 55 лет

стараются не тратить энергию попусту. Наоборот, в отношении выбора средств

передвижения, альтернативных личному автомобилю, самые высокие доли

зарегистрированы среди молодых людей до 34 лет: 22,4% «обычно» выбирают такие

альтернативы по сравнению с 16,3% людей старше 55 лет.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Being careful

not to waste

energy

Being careful

not to waste

water

Watching out

for noisy

behavior

Reading food

labels before

buying

Buying

products at

zero kilometer

Using

disposable

products

Choosing

alternative

transport

Buying

organic

foods/products

All M F

Рабочий документ 8

10

Гендерные различия очевидны во всех возрастных группах. Однако, если рассмотреть

более молодых людей (14-24 года), некоторые различия усиливаются: например это

гораздо более внимательное отношение девушек/женщин к природным ресурсам

(Диаграмма 5), особенно в отношении экономии воды (+8,5 процентных пункта по

сравнению с молодыми мужчинами) и энергии (+9,5 процентных пункта). Более

внимательное по сравнению с их сверстниками мужского пола отношение девушек

также отмечается в покупательском поведении, таком как чтение этикеток продуктов

перед их покупкой (+7,5 пунктов) или покупка органических продуктов питания и

продуктов (+5,8 пункта).

Уровень образования оказывает серьезное влияние на экологически ответственное

поведение. По мере повышения уровня образования увеличивается процент граждан,

для которых такое поведение обычно. Среди самого высокого и самого низкого

образовательного уровня разница составляет более 20 процентных пунктов в том, что

касается привычки читать этикетки продуктов, почти 15 пунктов в отношении

покупки органических продуктов и около 10 процентных пунктов в предпочтении

продуктов местного производства. Среди людей с более высоким образовательным

уровнем склонность к бережному расходованию воды и энергии также выше, даже

если разрыв меньше. В частности, женщины с высоким образовательным уровнем

представляют собой подгруппу населения, характеризующуюся ответственным

поведением и большим вниманием к окружающей среде. Среди женщин-выпускниц

вузов каждая третья придерживается как минимум 5 видов экологически

ответственного поведения. Соотношение падает до 1 из 4 среди мужчин с таким же

уровнем образования.

Диаграмма 5. Лица 14-24 лет с разбивкой по свойственному им

экологически ответственному поведению и полу. Год 2021. Процент

Источник: Истат, Аспекты повседневной жизни

Более широкое распространение экологически ответственного поведения среди

женщин также может быть связано с различными гендерными ролями, например,

потому что женщины чаще ходят по магазинам, чем мужчины, или потому, что они

занимаются ведением домашнего хозяйства и, следовательно, больше заботятся о том,

чтобы уложиться в семейный бюджет за счет более бережного использования

ресурсов (воды, энергии и т. д.). Рассматривая распределение поведения также по

роли в домашнем хозяйстве, большая склонность женщин к экологически

Being

careful not

to waste

water

Being

careful not

to waste

energy

Watching

out for

noisy

behavior

Reading

food labels

before

buying them

Choosing

alternative

means of

transport to

private ones

Using

disposable

products

Buying

products at

zero

kilometer

Buying

organic

foods and

products

M F

Рабочий документ 8

11

ответственному поведению наблюдается не только для тех, кто имеет обязанности по

ведению домашнего хозяйства (глава домохозяйства или его партнер), и,

следовательно, часто отвечает за выбор потребляемых товаров и услуг и модели

расходования денежных средств домохозяйством, но также и для женщин, живущих

со своими родителями (дочери). Было бы интересно более глубоко изучить

определяющие факторы этого поведения с помощью анализа внутренней структуры

домохозяйства, чтобы изучить отношение между установками и поведением

родителей и установками и поведением сыновей и дочерей.

Некоторые различия возникают и на территориальном уровне. В северных регионах

выше процент людей, имеющих позитивные привычки, связанные с мобильностью:

52,4% стараются не вести себя шумно за рулем (45,0% в регионах южной Италии), и

19,9% выбирают альтернативные транспортные средства вместо личных автомобилей

или других частных автомобилей (13,9% на юге и островах). В центральных регионах

большее внимание уделяют чтению этикеток (39,3% по сравнению с 35,4% на юге и

островах) и предпочитают покупать органические продукты (15,7% по сравнению с

14,4% на севере). С другой стороны, среди жителей юга и островов частота покупки

продуктов питания и местных продуктов выше (29,6% по сравнению с 21,1% на

севере). Внимание к вопросам экономии воды и энергии не меняется от региона к

региону.

Результаты подтверждают данные других исследований о гендерных различиях в

экологически ответственном поведении и отношении к зеленому потреблению.

Женщины более уважительно относятся к природным ресурсам, а гендерные различия

возникают среди молодых и высокообразованных людей.

B. Устойчивая мобильность: еще многое предстоит сделать

Внедрение системы мобильности с низким воздействием на окружающую среду,

особенно в городских районах, считается приоритетом для улучшения качества жизни

граждан и защиты планеты. Устойчивая мобильность — одна из самых важных задач,

решение которой позволит значительно сократить дорожное движение, улучшить

качество воздуха, предотвратить деградацию городов и сократить потребление

энергии. Ходьба пешком, езда на велосипеде, использование общественного

транспорта, совместное использование автомобилей — вот лишь несколько примеров

того, что сейчас называется устойчивой мобильностью, то есть набора полезных

практик, позволяющих примирить между собой необходимость двигаться и снижение

загрязнения воздуха и шума.

В обследовании «Аспекты повседневной жизни» также собираются данные о поездках

на работу, что дает дополнительную пищу для размышлений. В 2021 году около 30

миллионов человек ежедневно перемещались на учебу или работу: более трети из них

ехали на работу, оставшаяся треть - на учебу. Процент людей, которые добираются до

работы на частном транспорте, остается очень высоким, что, как следствие, оказывает

сильное воздействие на окружающую среду: 84,6% из всех работающих с

незначительными гендерными различиями (84,2 среди мужчин и 85,3% среди

женщин). Эти цифры очень высоки, даже если рабочее место находится в том же

муниципалитете, где люди живут (82,8%): в этом случае однако разница между

мужчинами и женщинами составляет два процентных пункта (81,5% женщин по

сравнению с 83,6% мужчин).

Рабочий документ 8

12

Если посмотреть на другие виды транспорта, данные показывают, что поведение

женщин более экологично. Женщины, работающие в муниципалитете по месту

жительства, ходят на работу пешком чаще, чем работающие мужчины: 27,6% по

сравнению с 17,4%. Более того, использование общественного транспорта более

распространено среди женщин вне зависимости от удаленности места, до которого

нужно добраться (Диаграмма 6): 6,3% работающих женщин по сравнению с 4,9%

работающих мужчин. Различия касаются как поездок в пределах муниципалитета

(6,5% по сравнению с 4,4% мужчин), так и, в частности, поездок на дальние

расстояния (13,4% работающих женщин по сравнению с 8,9% работающих мужчин).

Среди взрослых студентов использование личного транспорта менее распространено,

а гендерные различия шире. 28,5% добираются до школы/университета на личном

транспорте (32,1% мужчин по сравнению с 25,2% женщин). Различия сохраняются

даже в том случае, когда место учебы находится в муниципалитете, где они

проживают: однако в этом случае число тех, кто пользуется личным транспортом,

возрастает как среди женщин, так и среди мужчин (42,9% мужчин и 35% женщин).

Гендерные различия в плане устойчивой мобильности среди студентов меньше. Так,

18,8% респондентов женского пола ходят в школу/университет пешком по сравнению

с 20,2% студентов мужского пола. Существенных различий в использовании

общественного транспорта для поездок в школу не наблюдается (53,6% учащихся

женского пола по сравнению с 52% учащихся мужского пола) (Диаграмма 7). Однако,

учитывая поездки на короткие расстояния, различия между мужчинами и женщинами

в использовании общественного транспорта более значительны: для поездок на работу

в пределах муниципалитета, в котором они живут, 43% учащихся/студенток

пользуются общественным транспортом по сравнению с 37,5% учащихся/студентов

мужского пола.

Совместное использование личного транспорта как одновременно (поочередное

использование автомобилей), так и в разное время (например, совместное

использование велосипедов и автомобилей) сокращает количество транспортных

средств в обращении и представляет собой более устойчивый вид транспорта.

Поочередное использование автомобилей с коллегами по работе или учебе, которым

нужно ехать по тому же маршруту, выбирают 6% взрослых, путешествующих по

работе или учебе. Эта форма мобильности, представляющая собой нечто среднее

между использованием общественного транспорта и пользованием личным

автомобилем, больше характерна для мужчин (9,1% по сравнению с 6% женщин).

Однако интересно отметить, что среди работающих людей мужчины чаще прибегают

к поочередному использованию автомобилей (8,9% по сравнению с 5,2% работающих

женщин), в то время как среди взрослых студентов женщины чаще объединяются с

друзьями для совместного использования автомобилей.

Диаграмма 6. Работающие люди в возрасте 18 лет и старше,

пользующиеся общественным транспортом, по расстоянию от места

работы и полу. Год 2021. Процент.

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Диаграмма 7. Взрослые учащиеся, пользующиеся общественным

транспортом, по расстоянию от школы и полу. Год 2021. Процент.

Совместное использование транспорта еще не получило широкого распространения,

хотя в последние годы оно росло. В 2021 году более 600 тысяч человек в возрасте от

18 лет и старше (1,3% населения) воспользовались услугой проката велосипедов,

позволяющей арендовать велосипед на короткий срок. Использование проката

велосипедов более распространено среди мужчин (1,6% по сравнению с 1% женщин),

особенно если они работают (2,2% по сравнению с 1,4% женщин). Прокат

велосипедов более распространен в крупных городских районах, где доля

пользователей в два раза превышает средний показатель, и в мегаполисах, где доля

пользователей даже превышает средний показатель по стране в 4 раза.

Аналогичное количество людей в возрасте 18 лет и старше (более 600 000) хотя бы раз

в год пользовались услугами каршеринга (услуга, позволяющая получить и

использовать автомобиль без присутствия помощника) в качестве водителей или

пассажиров. Пользователи составляют 1,2% взрослого населения: 1,6% мужчин по

сравнению с 0,8% женщин. Каршеринг, что даже очевиднее, чем прокат велосипедов,

ограничен большими городами.

Короче говоря, результаты показывают, что регулярные поездки на работу из

пригорода в город и обратно, особенно по рабочим причинам, по-прежнему в

4.4 3.6

8.9

4.9 6.5

4.3

13.4

6.3 5.2

3.8

10.0

5.4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Same

municipality

where he/she lives

Same province-

where he/she lives

Greater distance All distances

M F All

37.5 43.7

67.2

50.0 43.0

51.7

65.6

53.6

40.3

48.0

66.3

52.0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Same municipality

where he/she lives

Same province-

where he/she lives

Greater distance All distances

M F All

Рабочий документ 8

14

значительной степени подразумевают использование личных автомобилей или

мотоциклов, что приводит к сильному воздействию на окружающую среду.

Альтернативные формы мобильности все еще мало распространены. Различия в

поездках мужчин и женщин на работу из пригорода в город и обратно показывают

разные модели мобильности, как на работу, так и на учебу, а также на необходимость

учета этих аспектов в политике в сфере общественного транспорта. С этой целью

необходимо дополнительно изучить транспортные потребности мужчин и женщин,

предоставив более подробную информацию для формирования политики,

поддерживающей активную и устойчивую мобильность.

V. Выводы

Статистика окружающей среды, являющаяся относительно новой областью по

сравнению с экономической, демографической и социальной статистикой, до

настоящего времени была в некоторой степени гендерно нейтральной.

Проанализированные данные показывают, насколько важно изучать отношения между

населением и окружающей средой и взаимодействие между гендерной составляющей

и экологической устойчивостью.

Граждане и домохозяйства являются одним из основных источников нагрузки на

окружающую среду в современном обществе. Изучение внимания граждан к

экологическим проблемам, факторов, связанных с этим, и того, как это внимание

проявляется в поведении, очень важно для политики, направленной на обеспечение

экологической устойчивости.

Предстоит еще долгий путь. Хотя большая часть населения обеспокоена многими

экологическими проблемами, все еще существуют группы населения, у которых

внимание к проблемам экологии необходимо формировать также посредством

проведения информационно-просветительской политики.

Хотя восприятие проблем и удовлетворенность качеством окружающей среды

существенно не различаются между мужчинами и женщинами, что указывает на

сквозной характер этих аспектов, вместо этого возникают гендерные различия в

поведении. Женщины с большей вероятностью ведут более ответственный образ

жизни, характеризуются более ответственным потреблением и выбирают устойчивые

формы мобильности. В домохозяйствах женщины могут играть важную роль в

повышении осведомленности других членов домохозяйства и, в частности, самых

молодых людей. В качестве следующего шага будет интересно изучить с помощью

анализа внутренней структуры домохозяйства внимание к экологическим проблемам

различных членов домохозяйства и отношения между представлениями и поведением

родителей и представлениями и поведением их детей.

Исследованные вопросы дают общее понимание ситуации, которое полезно для

выработки политики в сфере информирования, но необходимы дальнейшие

исследования, как с точки зрения анализа имеющихся данных, так и для улучшения

сбора данных. Следовательно, важно, например, изучить индивидуальное поведение в

отношении образования и утилизации отходов (до сих пор это проводилось только на

уровне домохозяйств), изучить потребности граждан в плане мобильности и т. д.

Только в контексте различных моделей регулярных поездок на работу и обратно

можно разработать политику устойчивой мобильности, которая будет в большей

степени учитывать потребности пользователей и будет более эффективной.

Рабочий документ 8

15

Даже официальная статистика должна вкладывать больше средств в изучение

взаимосвязи между окружающей средой и индивидуальным поведением, выявление

пробелов в информации и более тщательное изучение различного воздействия

мужчин и женщин на окружающую среду, а также их конкретных потребностей и

приоритетов.

Литература

Aaron R. Brough, James E. B. Wilkie, Jingjing Ma, Mathew S. Isaac, David Gal, Is Eco-

Friendly Unmanly? The Green-Feminine Stereotype and Its Effect on Sustainable

Consumption, Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 43, Issue 4, December 2016, Pages

567–582, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw044

Eurobarometer, Attitudes of Europeans towards the Environment - Special Eurobarometer

501 - Wave EB92.4, March 2020

Istat (2018), Spostamenti quotidiani e nuove forme di mobilità, Statistiche report 29

November.

Istat (2022), Preoccupazioni ambientali e comportamenti ecocompatibili, Statistiche report

14 July.

Oecd (2021), Gender and the Environment: Building Evidence and Policies to Achieve the

SDGs, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3d32ca39-en.

United Nations Environment Programme (2015). Gender equality and the environment:

Policy and strategy. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/7655.

Zelezny L. P.P. Chua and C.Aldrich (2000), New Ways of Thinking about

Environmentalism: Elaborating on Gender Differences in Environmentalism, Journal of

Social Issues, vol.56, pp. 443-457.

Zhao Z., Gong Y., Li Y., Zhang L., Sun Y. (2021) Gender-Related Beliefs, Norms, and the

Link With Green Consumption Frontiers in Psychology, vol.12,

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710239

Household final consumption expenditure distributional accounts: harmonising macro and micro data

Meeting of the Group of Experts on National Accounts

25-27 April 2023, Geneva

Istat | Directorate for National Accounts

Sara Basso, Stefania Massari

Macro-economic measures of the economy such as the National Accounts provide information on

the size and structure of the economy but they do not provide information on the distribution of

income, consumption and wealth.

The “Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi Commission”, stressed the importance of a greater focus on the

household perspective in order to provide better measures of people’s well being: distributional

results on income, consumption and saving aligned to National account macroeconomic aggregates

are crucial in this regard.

Micro data sources provide distributional information among households but, due to differences in

concepts and definitions (and statistical practices as well), may provide results that diverge from

National Accounts aggregates, and therefore distributional measures created using micro data

sources alone may not be consistent with the figures in the National Accounts.

In order to compile household distributional accounts the first main challenge is combining and

harmonizing macro and micro data.

Distributional measures

HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA2

The aim of this presentation is to:

o highlight the differences between micro and macro aggregates in terms of definitions

and concepts.

o read National Accounts jointly with distribution indicators from micro data sources

o integrate micro information into the System of National Accounts framework by Coicop

categories

o analyse alternative sources to distribute some specific items

Presentation aim

HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA3

o Eurostat developed a centralised exercise, based on data available for the EU in EU-SILC and

HBS, for countries not yet ready to publish national estimates. This involved testing different

methods for allocating the micro-macro gap and a sensitivity analysis on their impact on the

results.

o The Eurostat centralised exercise aims at compiling experimental distributional results for

household income and consumption, aligned with the National Accounts totals.

o Year 2015 was the one covered by Eurostat in the centralised exercise for all EU countries (to

ensure having at least one reference year in common for cross-country comparison).

o In the centralised exercise consumption distributional estimates for Italy could not be made due to

missing income variables in HBS.

Eurostat centralised exercise

4 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

General framework (1/2)

Both the Survey and the National Accounts are based on the harmonized international classification

of expenditure, Classification of Individual COnsumption by Purpose - Coicop.

Two different regulations underlying

- Since January 1st 2021, the IT HBS is based on Regulation (EU) 2019/1700, also known as IESS

- Integrated European Social Statistics, establishing a common framework for European statistics

relating to persons and households, based on data at individual level collected from samples.

IT HBS provides yearly estimates

- National Accounts are based on "European system of accounts ESA 2010"

5 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

o The harmonisation between micro and macro data was conducted for the 41 Coicop

groups (3-digit) in order to obtain the best detailed adjustment and use as much as possible the

distribution of household consumption from micro data source.

o The results are presented for the 12 main Coicop items.

o The exercise focuses on 2019 as reference year because of the availability of the Tourism

Satellite Account and thus the possibility of using this data to adjust some consumption

categories.

6 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

General framework (2/2)

Differences between HBS and NA

Differences in the reference population

HBS population differs from the NA population.

The HBS population is the resident population with the exclusion of persons permanently living in institutions.

The reference population in NA is the present population on the national territory at a given date, including

households and persons living in institutions.

Differences in definitions and concepts

Differences in concepts and definitions between HBS and NA can be grouped into the following two types:

1) treatment of items considered in both domains;

2) types of expenditure covered by the survey but not by the NA, or vice-versa.

7 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

Differences in the reference population

NA consumer population, 2019 (thousands)

8

Comparison between HBS and NA population, 2019

NA HFCE follows a domestic concept (expenditures of non-resident householdes on the territory are

included; expenditures of resident households abroad are excluded) whereas HBS follows a national

concept (expenditures of non-resident householdes on the territory are excluded; expenditures of resident

households abroad are included).

HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

2019

Resident population (annual average) 59,729

Citizen temporarily resident abroad -393

Non-resident foreigners present for at least one year 540

Foreign tourists 605

NA consumer popolation 60,480

Reference population 2019

HBS (a) 59,211

NA (b) 60,480

Ratio (b/a) 1.021

HBS ratio to NA-HFCE

9

Comparison between HBS and NA estimates, 2019 (population adjustment)

HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

* Proportional adjustment by the ratio between the two reference populations

** Proportional adjustment by the ratio between the two reference populations and tourism satellite account

P1* P2**

01-Food and non-alcoholic beverages 93.0 94.9 95.2

02-Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 31.2 31.9 31.7

03-Clothing and footwear 54.3 55.5 55.7

04-Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 110.4 112.8 111.8

05-Goods and services for the dwelling 52.9 54.0 54.2

06-Health 95.5 97.6 97.9

07-Transport 65.3 66.7 64.3

08-Communication 78.6 80.3 80.5

09-Goods and services for recreation and culture 51.9 53.0 53.2

10-Education 50.2 51.3 51.4

11-Restaurants and hotels 35.5 36.3 38.4

12-Miscellaneous goods and services 50.8 51.9 52.0

Total 72.3 73.8 73.8

Coicop (2-digit)

Coverage Rate

Raw data Adjusted data

Differences in definitions and concepts

10 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

Definitions and concepts - adjustment

11

Comparison between HBS and NA estimates, 2019 (conceptual adjustment)

HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

* Population adjustment

** Conceptual adjustment

P2* P3**

01-Food and non-alcoholic beverages 93.0 94.9 96.5

02-Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 31.2 31.9 51.7

03-Clothing and footwear 54.3 55.5 55.7

04-Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 110.4 112.8 111.8

05-Goods and services for the dwelling 52.9 54.0 54.2

06-Health 95.5 97.6 97.9

07-Transport 65.3 66.7 64.4

08-Communication 78.6 80.3 80.5

09-Goods and services for recreation and culture 51.9 53.0 71.3

10-Education 50.2 51.3 51.4

11-Restaurants and hotels 35.5 36.3 40.5

12-Miscellaneous goods and services 50.8 51.9 50.6

Total 72.3 73.8 77.7

Coicop (2-digit)

Coverage Rate

Raw data Adjusted data

12

Sources for each division in NA-HFCE.

Different sources to estimate NA-HFCE

Five main groups:

- Commodity flow method (CFM)

- Household Budget Survey (HBS)

- Multipurpose Survey (MS)

- Other Istat Surveys (OIS)

- Administrative and other sources (Admins)

National Accounts totals are the product of a balancing framework in which data from different

sources are combined.

HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

Sources

CP01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages HBS

CP02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics CFM/HBS/Admins

CP03 Clothing and footwear CFM

CP04 Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling HBS/Admins

CP05 Goods and services for the dwelling HBS/CFM/Admins

CP06 Health HBS/Admins

CP07 Transport HBS/Admins

CP08 Communication HBS/CFM/Admins

CP09 Goods and services for recreation and culture CFM/Admins

CP10 Education HBS/MS/Admins

CP11 Restaurants and hotels HBS/MS/OIS

CP12 Miscellaneous goods and services CFM/HBS/Admins

Division

Gap allocation methods

13 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

Eurostat centralised exercise methods for micro-macro gap allocation:

- Method M1 - Proportional allocation;

- Method M2 - Pareto tail modelling (complemented by proportional scaling);

- Methods M3.1 and M3.2 – Allocation of ascending/descending gap shares by quintile:

method M3.1 a ‘to-the-top’ allocation: gap shares 0 %, 10 %, 20 %, 30 %, 40 % to Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5

method M3.2 a ‘to-the-bottom’ allocation: gap shares 40 %, 30 %, 20 %, 10 %, and 0 % to Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5;

- Method M4 - Combined approach.

Only M1 and M3 methods are deemed suitable for consumption by Eurostat

Assessment of “linkage” in Coicop divisions between NA and HBS

14 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

HBS/NA

(adjuested for

population and

conceptual

differences)

Conceptual

link

HBS

use

CP01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages 96.5 high high

CP02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 51.7 low medium

CP03 Clothing and footwear 55.7 high low

CP04 Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 111.8 medium medium

CP05 Goods and services for the dwelling 54.2 high medium

CP06 Health 97.9 high high

CP07 Transport 64.4 medium medium

CP08 Communication 80.5 high high

CP09 Goods and services for recreation and culture 71.3 medium medium

CP10 Education 51.4 high low

CP11 Restaurants and hotels 40.5 medium low

CP12 Miscellaneous goods and services 50.6 low low

Division

Linkage assessment provides indications of the method to be used for the gap allocation

Reconciliation of micro and macro data is a key issue to define distributional accounts.

The empirical approach required the investigation of all available sources to define and better understand the

micro-macro gap and then try to allocate it as properly as possible.

All available information from Tourism Satellite Account is used.

Some items, such as illegal activities, imputed rents, gambling and FISIM can be related to specific household

groups and a dedicated analysis is required.

Other sources should be investigated, in order to improve the micro-macro alignment.

The incoming step: analysing the estimated household consumption expenditure by quintiles - according to the

HBS equivalised variable related to monetary net income - and by socio-demographic characteristics.

Final remarks and way forward

15 HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE DISTRIBUTIONAL ACCOUNTS: HARMONISING MACRO AND MICRO DATA

grazie Stefania Massari| [email protected]

Sara Basso| [email protected]

*Prepared by Emanuela Bologna and Miria Savioli

NOTE: The designations employed in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part

of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its

authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Economic Commission for Europe

Conference of European Statisticians

Group of Experts on Gender Statistics Geneva, Switzerland, 10-12 May 2023

Item B of the provisional agenda

Gender digital divide

The digital divide in Italy: a gender and territorial problem

Note by ISTAT (Italian National Institute of Statistics)*

Abstract

Several studies have highlighted how in Italy so far there is a significant gender gap in favour

of men with respect to ICT diffusion.

In fact, in 2022, 78.7 per cent of men aged 11 and over, compared to 72.8 per cent of women of

the same age, say they regularly access the Internet. However, it should be emphasised that it is

precisely among women in all age groups (with the exception of 11-14 year olds) that the

greatest growth was recorded especially between 2020 and 2021. The gender gap has thus

narrowed to zero for 20-54 year olds, while among the elderly the disparities remain wide:

from age 65 onwards, the female disadvantage is about 10 percentage points.

These gender differences are in addition to strong territorial differences and gaps. In fact, it is

observed that the North-east and South distance in Internet use is 8.4 pp and that in all Italian

regions Internet use is always higher for men than for women. The paper presented here aims

to show these dynamics in order to highlight the existing gender and territorial inequalities.

Working paper 6

Distr.: General

19 April 2023

English

Working paper 6

2

I. Introduction

1. In Italy, over the last thirty years, the spread of the Internet has brought about a real

revolution in people's lives, entailing changes in terms of customs and lifestyles, offering

new modes of communication and new possibilities for experiencing the various spheres of

one's life, from work and study to leisure and social and cultural participation.

2. There has been no lack of disparities in the spread of access and even today the North-South

territorial divide, together with gender differences in favour of men combined with

generational differences or those linked to educational credentials, characterise the spread of

the Internet in Italy.

3. Analysis of the temporal trend shows how, especially in correspondence with the entry into

the new millennium, the diffusion of the Net has been increasingly disruptive, with constant

annual growth rates and population groups that have gradually been reached more and more,

until reaching saturation in some cases.

4. Figure 1 shows how in Italy, starting from average diffusion levels of 25.8% in 2005 among

the population aged 11 and over, we arrive at 75.6% in 2022. Over a period of nearly 20

years, therefore, the share of regular users (who used the Internet at least once a week in the

three months preceding the interview) increased by about 50 percentage points. The increase

over time has been very high for both men and women, but higher among women (from 20.5

to 72.8%), reducing the gap with men from ten to five percentage points (Graph 1).

Graph 1

Persons aged 11 and over who used the Internet at least once a week in the last three months

before the interview by gender. Years 2005-2022 (percentage values)

Source: Istat, Aspects of daily live survey

5. From 2020 onwards, the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic also had an impact by imposing

a strong acceleration and further impetus on the spread of the Internet, when people's lives

had to fall into the domestic and indoor spheres, and the Internet was a great opportunity and

ally that could, for example, keep people in touch with each other despite the physical

distance imposed by the restrictions in place or create opportunities for work, study and

leisure. The total increase in just three years (from 2020 to 2022) was 13.3%, an average of

3 1

.4

3 3

.8

3 6

.5

4 0

.1

4 4

.6

5 0

.2

5 2

.1

5 4

.3

5 6

.6

5 9

.3

6 2

.2

6 4

.9

6 6

.0

6 9

.3

7 0

.7

7 2

.7

7 6

.1

7 8

.7

2 0

.5

3 8

.0

5 2

.1

6 2

.9

6 5

.6

6 9

.8

7 2

.8

25.8 28.2

30.9 34.2

38.9

43.9 46.5 48.1

51.1 54.1

57.0 60.3 61.8

65.1 66.7 69.0

72.9 75.6

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Males Females Total

Working paper 6

3

about 3 percentage points per year. The increase was higher among women: about 16%

compared to an increase of 11% among men, showing how during the pandemic period the

drive for ICT use also helped to narrow the gender gap.

A. Analysis by gender and generations

6. The analysis by age highlights how, regardless of gender, the increases over time have been

high for both men and women and that, in the first period analysed (from 2005 to 2010), the

greatest gains were observed especially among the youngest 11-14 year olds who, starting

from levels of less than 30%, increased by more than double, reaching about 66% in 2010

and almost reaching saturation level in 2022 with more than 90% of regular users. This

conquest by age gradually highlights the anticipated entry of the very young into the world

of the Net and at the same time shows how in this age group any gender differences

disappear and levels of use are similar between boys and girls. In more recent years, from

2010 to 2015, on the other hand, increases are also beginning to be observed among the

older population groups that had remained less involved in the Net until that point. Thus,

from 2010 to 2015, the rates of use among the population aged 45 and over are growing. In

this population group, however, we still observe differences between males and females in

this period: Internet use, in fact, spreads more widely and more incisively for the former,

among whom in 2015 we find shares of over 50 per cent up to the age of 60-64. Between

2016 and 2022, the observed picture is consolidated and the share of the Internet above 85

per cent is reached by all age groups from 11 to 44 years and, throughout the five-year

period, users for all age groups between 55 and 74 years grow by more than fifteen

percentage points, with a simultaneous reduction in the gap between males and females,

especially recorded between 2020 and 2021. It should be emphasised, however, that even

though the gap is narrowing, it is still evident among the older age groups, where the male-

female difference exceeds ten percentage points in favour of the former, a gender gap that

not even the acceleration offered by the pandemic has been able to erode much.

Graph 2

Persons aged 11 and over who used the Internet at least once a week in the last three months

before the interview by gender and age class. Years 2005, 2010, 2015, 2019, 2022

(percentage values)

Source: Istat, Aspects of daily live survey

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 1 -1

4

1 5 -1

9

2 0 -2

4

2 5 -3

4

3 5 -4

4

4 5 -5

4

5 5 -5

9

6 0 -6

4

6 5 -7

4

7 5

a n

d o

v e

r

1 1 -1

4

1 5 -1

9

2 0 -2

4

2 5 -3

4

3 5 -4

4

4 5 -5

4

5 5 -5

9

6 0 -6

4

6 5 -7

4

7 5

a n

d o

v e

r

1 1 -1

4

1 5 -1

9

2 0 -2

4

2 5 -3

4

3 5 -4

4

4 5 -5

4

5 5 -5

9

6 0 -6

4

6 5 -7

4

7 5

a n

d o

v e

r

Males Females Males and Females

2005 2010 2015 2019 2022

Working paper 6

4

B. Analysis by gender and territory

7. The diffusion of regular Internet use is differentiated in the various Italian regions, with

generally higher levels in the central-northern regions and gradually lower levels in the

southern regions (South and Islands). In 2022, compared with a national average of 75.6% of

individuals aged 11 years who are regular Internet users, the share of users is 78.6% in the

North, 77% in the Centre and 70.6% in the Southern regions (with the highest distance

recorded between the North-east and South regions and equal to 8.4 pp). The analysis by

gender and territory highlights similar differences for men and women with respect to the

national average, with higher values of use in the Centre-North and lower values in the

South. However, the territorial distances from the average value registered separately among

men and among women are greater among women than among men, and this happens in

both positive and negative directions (Graph 3).

Graph 3

Persons aged 11 and over who used the Internet at least once a week in the last three months

before the interview by gender and geographical areas. Year 2022 (percentage variations

with respect to the Italian average)

Source: Istat, Aspects of daily live survey

8. It should be noted that over time, although a strong increase in the spread of Internet use has

been observed in all regions, the resulting geography maintains a strong North-South

territorial divide. The regional analysis over time shows, in fact, how about 20 years later

(i.e. comparing 2005 and 2022) similar rankings are observed. However, comparing the two

rankings, it can be seen that regions such as the PA of Trento, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna,

Liguria, Toscana, Molise, Campania, and Sicilia have improved their position in the

rankings, while regions such as the PA of Bolzano, Lazio, Marche, Piemonte, Valle d'Aosta,

Abruzzo, Basilicata, and Calabria have worsened their position. Finally, regions such as

Lombardia, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Umbria, Sardinia, and Puglia show no change in their

ranking position after 20 years.

9. The analysis by gender shows similar regional rankings for both sexes in the two years

compared (2005 and 2022), although with levels for women in both years always lower than

those for men in the same region of residence. Passing from the analysis of 2005 to that of

Males Females

Working paper 6

5

2022, an upward shift in the values observed is observed for all the regions with a range that

for women in 2005 goes from 11.2 in Sicilia to 28.1 in the PA di Bolzano, and in 2022 from

61.6% in Calabria to 78.9% in the PA di Bolzano, while for men it goes in 2005 from 22.7 in

Sicilia to 38.6 in the PA di Bolzano and in 2022 from 67.7% in Calabria to 85.6% in the

Trento PA.

Graph 4

Ranking of regions with respect to Internet use at least once a week in the last three months

before the interview of 11-year-olds. Years 2005 and 2022 (percentage changes)

Year 2005

Year 2022

Source: Istat, Aspects of daily live survey

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

B o

lz a

n o

/B o

z e

n

L a

z io

L o

m b

a rd

ia

T re

n to

F ri u

li- V

e n

e z ia

G iu

lia

V e

n e

to

M a

rc h

e

P ie

m o

n te

V a

lle d

'A o

s ta

E m

ili a

- R

o m

a g

n a

T o

s c a

n a

A b

ru z z o

U m

b ri a

L ig

u ri a

S a

rd e g

n a

B a

s ili

c a

ta

M o

lis e

C a

la b

ri a

P u g lia

C a

m p

a n

ia

S ic

ili a

Totale Males Totale Females Males Females

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

T re

n to

B o

lz a

n o

/B o

z e

n

L o

m b

a rd

ia

V e

n e

to

E m

ili a

-R o

m a

g n

a

F ri u

li- V

e n

e z ia

G iu

lia L a

z io

L ig

u ri a

T o

s c a

n a

M a

rc h

e

P ie

m o

n te

U m

b ri a

V a

lle d

'A o

s ta

M o

lis e

A b

ru z z o

S a

rd e g

n a

C a

m p

a n

ia

S ic

ili a

P u g lia

B a

s ili

c a

ta

C a

la b

ri a

Totale Males Totale Females Males Females

Working paper 6

6

10. Comparing 2005 and 2022, it can be observed that in the first year analysed, the values for

men in the last regions in the ranking were slightly lower than those for women in the first

regions in the ranking, highlighting not only an evident territorial divide but also a strong

gender gap. This situation changes when analysing the distribution some twenty years later.

In 2022, in fact, improvements in the gender gap are observed, but at the same time

inequalities on the territory are widening (Graph 4).

C. Gender, generations and educational status

11. Internet access is strongly associated with people's level of education, and this is combined

with trends by gender and generation. The distributions by educational level show that the

higher the educational qualification possessed the higher the access to the Internet and this

evidence has remained fairly constant over time. Moreover, it tends to be men with high

educational qualifications more than women with the same qualifications who use the net.

12. However, these differences have shifted over time. In fact, if we compare the distributions of

men and women by educational qualification, we can see that in 2005, for all age groups,

men with higher educational qualifications had significantly higher rates of Internet use than

women with the same educational qualification (71.1% vs. 56.3%).

13. This evidence changes, however, if we look at the most recent data for 2022, which show

that among the youngest, between the ages of 11 and 34, there are practically no differences,

because, as pointed out earlier, the new generations have progressively reached saturation

point in their use of the Internet; in this age group, levels of Internet use are similar among

university graduates, high school graduates and those who have only completed compulsory

education, regardless of gender and age.

14. As age increases, on the other hand, we find a similar situation to that observed in 2005,

although with an upward shift in the levels of use for all educational qualifications, and

when the educational qualification possessed is higher, the levels of use tend to be higher.

However, the comparison between men and women shows that the gap in favour of the

former is narrowing compared to 2005: especially in the case of university graduates there

are almost no differences, and the levels of use of men and women almost overlap (men

graduates aged 55 years and over = 85.3% versus women graduates aged 55 years and over

= 85.3%) (Graph 5).

Working paper 6

7

Graph 5

Persons aged 11 and over who used the Internet at least once a week in the last three months

before the interview by gender, educational status and age class. Years 2005 and 2022

(percentage values)

Year 2005

Year 2022

Source: Istat, Aspects of daily live survey

II. Conclusions

15. Over the past thirty years, there has been a continuous increase in Internet use in Italy.

However, not all the population is accustomed to using the Internet on a regular basis (about

one in four people used it less than once a week in the three months preceding the interview

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males

11-34 35-54 55 and over Total

Low (ISCED 0, 1, 2) Medium (ISCED 3, 4) High (ISCED 5, 6, 7, 8) Total

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males

11-34 35-54 55 and over Total

Low (ISCED 0, 1, 2) Medium (ISCED 3, 4) High (ISCED 5, 6, 7, 8) Total

Working paper 6

8

or never used it at all) and the use of the internet is so far very associated to social and

demographic factors. Among the younger generations, a generalised spread has been

observed over time that has cancelled out gender differences, but there is still a gender gap

that connotes a disadvantage especially for elderly women and the residents in the South.

16. Digital capital has shown its indispensability in times of pandemic when it was fundamental

for everyday life and the challenges of school and work activities and social and cultural

participation. Equally evident, however, has been the impact of the digital divide, which has

shown the difficulties of those sections of the population and territories that, precisely

because of their lack of access to information and communication technologies, have found

themselves excluded, either totally or partially.

*Подготовили Эмануэла Болонья и Мириа Савиоли

ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: Обозначения в настоящем документе не подразумевают выражения какого-либо мнения

Секретариата Организации Объединенных Наций в отношении юридического положения любой страны,

территории, города или края или их властей или в отношении делимитации ее границ.

Европейская экономическая комиссия

Конференция европейских статистиков

Группа экспертов по гендерной статистике Женева, Швейцария, 10-12 мая 2023 года

Пункт B предварительной повестки дня

Гендерный цифровой разрыв

Цифровой разрыв в Италии: гендерная и региональная проблема

Записка ИСТАТа (Итальянского национального института статистики)*

Аннотация

В нескольких исследованиях показано, что в Италии до сих пор существует

значительный гендерный разрыв в пользу мужчин с точки зрения распространения ИКТ.

На самом деле, в 2022 году 78,7% мужчин в возрасте 11 лет и старше по сравнению с

72,8% женщин того же возраста сообщили, что регулярно пользуются интернетом.

Однако следует подчеркнуть, что именно среди женщин всех возрастных групп (за

исключением группы 11-14 лет) зафиксирован наибольший рост, особенно в период с

2020 по 2021 год. Таким образом, гендерный разрыв сократился до нуля для лиц в

возрасте 20–54 лет, в то время как среди пожилых людей различия остаются

значительными: начиная с 65 лет, показатели для женщин хуже примерно на 10

процентных пунктов.

Эти гендерные различия существуют наряду с серьезными региональными различиями и

разрывами. Известно, что разрыв между северо-востоком и югом страны в пользовании

интернетом составляет 8,4 п.п. и что во всех итальянских регионах интернетом всегда

больше пользуются мужчины, чем женщины. Настоящий документ призван показать эту

динамику, чтобы привлечь внимание к существующему гендерному и региональному

неравенству.

Рабочий документ 6

Distr.: General

1 мая 2023 г. 10:00:19

English

Рабочий документ 6

2

I. Введение

1. За последние тридцать лет в Италии распространение интернета произвело

настоящую революцию в жизни людей, повлекшую за собой изменения в обычаях и

образе жизни, появились новые способы общения и новые возможности для

знакомства с различными сферами жизни: от работы и учебы до отдыха и участия в

общественной и культурной жизни.

2. Неравенство в получении доступа к интернету наблюдалось с самого начала, и даже

сегодня региональный разрыв между севером и югом страны наряду с гендерными

различиями в пользу мужчин и поколенческими различиями или различиями,

связанными с уровнем образования, характеризуют распространение интернета в

Италии.

3. Анализ динамики событий показывает, как - особенно в связи с вступлением в новое

тысячелетие - распространение интернета происходило все более стремительно, с

постоянными ежегодными темпами роста и постепенным расширением групп

населения, получавших доступ к интернету, пока в некоторых случаях не было

обеспечено насыщение.

4. На рисунке 1 показано, как в Италии, начиная со среднего уровня распространения

25,8% в 2005 году среди населения в возрасте 11 лет и старше, мы достигаем 75,6% в

2022 году. Таким образом, за почти 20-летний период доля постоянных пользователей

(пользовавшихся интернетом не реже одного раза в неделю в течение трех месяцев,

предшествовавших опросу) увеличилась примерно на 50 процентных пунктов. Рост

числа пользователей с течением времени был очень высоким как для мужчин, так и

для женщин, но выше среди женщин (с 20,5 до 72,8%), при этом разрыв между

женщинами и мужчинами сократился с десяти до пяти процентных пунктов

(Диаграмма 1).

Диаграмма 1

Лица в возрасте 11 лет и старше, которые пользовались интернетом не реже одного

раза в неделю в течение последних трех месяцев до опроса, в разбивке по полу. Годы

Рабочий документ 6

3

2005-2022 (в процентах)

Источник: Истат, Обследование аспектов повседневной жизни

5. Кроме того, начиная с 2020 года распространение пандемии COVID-19 оказало свое

влияние, придав сильное ускорение и дополнительный импульс распространению

интернета. Тогда жизнь людей пришлось ограничить домом и закрытыми

помещениями, а интернет стал хорошей возможностью и союзником, которые

обеспечивали возможность, например, поддерживать связь между людьми, несмотря

на физическое расстояние, налагаемое действующими ограничениями, или создавать

условия для работы, учебы и отдыха. Общий прирост всего за три года (с 2020 по 2022

год) составил 13,3%, в среднем около 3 процентных пунктов в год. Рост был выше

среди женщин: около 16% по сравнению с увеличением на 11% среди мужчин, что

свидетельствует о том, как в период пандемии стремление к использованию ИКТ

также помогло сократить гендерный разрыв.

A. Анализ по полу и поколениям

6. Анализ по возрасту показывает, что, независимо от пола, прирост с течением времени

был высоким как для мужчин, так и для женщин, и что в первый анализируемый

период (с 2005 по 2010 год) наибольший прирост наблюдался особенно среди самых

молодых людей в возрасте 11-14 лет. Начиная с уровня менее 30%, их число

увеличилось более чем вдвое, достигнув примерно 66% в 2010 году и почти достигнув

уровня насыщения в 2022 году с более чем 90% постоянных пользователей. Эти

результаты с учетом возраста подчеркивают ожидаемое вступление в мир интернета

самых юных и в то же время показывают, как в этой возрастной группе исчезают

какие-либо гендерные различия, а уровни пользования одинаковы для мальчиков и

девочек. С другой стороны, в более поздние годы, с 2010 по 2015 год, рост также

начинает наблюдаться среди пожилых групп населения, которые до этого момента

оставались менее вовлеченными в сеть. Так, с 2010 по 2015 годы росли показатели

пользования интернетом среди населения в возрасте 45 лет и старше. Однако в этой

популяционной группе мы все еще наблюдаем различия между мужчинами и

женщинами в этот период: на самом деле пользование интернетом росло шире и

3 1

.4

3 3

.8

3 6

.5

4 0

.1

4 4

.6

5 0

.2

5 2

.1

5 4

.3

5 6

.6

5 9

.3

6 2

.2

6 4

.9

6 6

.0

6 9

.3

7 0

.7

7 2

.7

7 6

.1

7 8

.7

2 0

.5

3 8

.0

5 2

.1

6 2

.9

6 5

.6

6 9

.8

7 2

.8

25.8 28.2

30.9 34.2

38.9

43.9 46.5 48.1

51.1 54.1

57.0 60.3 61.8

65.1 66.7 69.0

72.9 75.6

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Males Females Total

Рабочий документ 6

4

динамичнее для первых, например в 2015 году мы видим долю более 50% для мужчин

в возрасте до 60-64 лет. В период с 2016 по 2022 год наблюдаемая картина

консолидируется, и доля пользователей интернета выше 85 процентов приходится на

все возрастные группы от 11 до 44 лет. А в течение пятилетнего периода число

пользователей всех возрастных групп от 55 до 74 лет растет более чем на пятнадцать

процентных пунктов при одновременном сокращении разрыва между мужчинами и

женщинами, особенно выраженном в период с 2020 по 2021 год. Следует однако

подчеркнуть, что, хотя разрыв и сокращается, он все еще заметен среди старших

возрастных групп, где разница между мужчинами и женщинами превышает десять

процентных пунктов в пользу первых. И даже ускорение, приданное пандемией, не

смогло преодолеть этот гендерный разрыв.

Диаграмма 2

Лица в возрасте 11 лет и старше, которые пользовались интернетом не реже одного

раза в неделю в течение последних трех месяцев до опроса, в разбивке по полу и

возрастной группе. Годы 2005, 2010, 2015, 2019, 2022 (значения в процентах)

Источник: Истат, Обследование аспектов повседневной жизни

B. Анализ по полу и территории

7. Распространение регулярного использования интернета различается в разных

регионах Италии: обычно более высокий уровень наблюдается в центральных и

северных регионах и постепенно он снижается в южных регионах (Юг и острова). По

сравнению со средним показателем по стране (75,6% лиц в возрасте от 11 лет

являются постоянными пользователями интернета) в 2022 году доля пользователей

составляет 78,6% на севере страны, 77% в центре и 70,6% в южных регионах (с

максимальным зафиксированным разрывом 8,4 п.п. между северо-востоком и югом).

Анализ с разбивкой по полу и региону выявляет схожие различия для мужчин и

женщин по сравнению со средними показателями по стране, при этом отмечаются

более высокие значения пользования интернетом в центре и на севере страны и более

низкие значения на юге. Однако региональные отличия от среднего значения,

регистрируемые отдельно для мужчин и для женщин, среди женщин более четко

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 1 -1

4

1 5 -1

9

2 0 -2

4

2 5 -3

4

3 5 -4

4

4 5 -5

4

5 5 -5

9

6 0 -6

4

6 5 -7

4

7 5

a n

d o

v e

r

1 1 -1

4

1 5 -1

9

2 0 -2

4

2 5 -3

4

3 5 -4

4

4 5 -5

4

5 5 -5

9

6 0 -6

4

6 5 -7

4

7 5

a n

d o

v e

r

1 1 -1

4

1 5 -1

9

2 0 -2

4

2 5 -3

4

3 5 -4

4

4 5 -5

4

5 5 -5

9

6 0 -6

4

6 5 -7

4

7 5

a n

d o

v e

r

Males Females Males and Females

2005 2010 2015 2019 2022

Рабочий документ 6

5

выражены, чем среди мужчин, причем как в положительную, так и в отрицательную

сторону (Диаграмма 3).

Диаграмма 3

Лица в возрасте 11 лет и старше, которые пользовались интернетом не реже одного

раза в неделю в течение последних трех месяцев до опроса, в разбивке по полу и

регионам. 2022 год (процентные отклонения от среднего показателя по Италии)

Источник: Истат, Обследование аспектов повседневной жизни

8. Следует отметить, что, хотя со временем во всех регионах наблюдается значительный

рост распространения пользования интернетом, в результате сохраняется сильный

разрыв между севером и югом. Региональный анализ за определенный период

времени фактически показывает, как примерно спустя 20 лет (то есть при сравнении

2005 и 2022 годов) наблюдается аналогичная картина. Однако при сравнении двух

показателей можно увидеть, что такие регионы, как Автономная область Трентино-

Альто-Адидже, Венето, Эмилия-Романья, Лигурия, Тоскана, Молизе, Кампания и

Сицилия, улучшили свои позиции, в то время как такие регионы, как автономная

провинция Больцано, Лацио, Марке, Пьемонте, Валле-д’Аоста, Абруццо, Базиликата и

Калабрия ухудшили свое положение. Наконец, такие регионы, как Ломбардия,

Фриули-Венеция-Джулия, Умбрия, Сардиния и Апулия, не изменили свои позиции в

рейтинге за 20 лет.

9. Анализ по полу показывает аналогичные цифры для регионов для обоих полов за два

сравниваемых года (2005 и 2022), хотя уровни для женщин оба года ниже, чем для

мужчин в том же регионе проживания. При переходе от анализа 2005 года к анализу

2022 года сдвиг наблюдаемых значений вверх наблюдается для всех регионов от

значения, которое для женщин в 2005 году составляло от 11,2 на Сицилии до 28,1 в

автономной провинции Больцано, а в 2022 году – от 61,6 % в Калабрии до 78,9% в

Больцано. В это время для мужчин в 2005 году значения составляли от 22,7 на

Сицилии до 38,6 в Больцано, а в 2022 году – от 67,7 % в Калабрии до 85,6 % в

Автономной области Трентино-Альто-Адидже.

Диаграмма 4

Males Females

Рабочий документ 6

6

Рейтинг регионов по использованию интернета не реже одного раза в неделю за

последние три месяца до опроса для лиц в возрасте 11 лет и старше. 2005 и 2022 годы

(изменения в процентах)

Год 2005

Год 2022

Источник: Истат, Обследование аспектов повседневной жизни

10. Сравнивая 2005 и 2022 годы, можно заметить, что в первый анализируемый год

значения для мужчин в регионах, замыкающих рейтинг, были немного ниже, чем для

женщин в регионах, возглавляющих рейтинг, что подчеркивает не только очевидный

региональный разрыв, но и также сильный гендерный разрыв. Эта ситуация меняется

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 B

o lz

a n

o /B

o z e

n

L a

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L o

m b

a rd

ia

T re

n to

F ri u

li- V

e n

e z ia

G iu

lia

V e

n e

to

M a

rc h

e

P ie

m o

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V a

lle d

'A o

s ta

E m

ili a

- R

o m

a g

n a

T o

s c a

n a

A b

ru z z o

U m

b ri a

L ig

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S a

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B a

s ili

c a

ta

M o

lis e

C a

la b

ri a

P u g lia

C a

m p

a n

ia

S ic

ili a

Totale Males Totale Females Males Females

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

T re

n to

B o

lz a

n o

/B o

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L o

m b

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V e

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to

E m

ili a

-R o

m a

g n

a

F ri u

li- V

e n

e z ia

G iu

lia L a

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L ig

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T o

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M a

rc h

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P ie

m o

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U m

b ri a

V a

lle d

'A o

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M o

lis e

A b

ru z z o

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P u g lia

B a

s ili

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Totale Males Totale Females Males Females

Рабочий документ 6

7

при анализе распространения примерно спустя двадцать лет. В 2022 году

действительно наблюдается сокращение гендерного разрыва, но в то же время

расширяется региональное неравенство (Диаграмма 4).

C. Пол, поколения и образовательный статус

11. Доступ в интернет тесно связан с уровнем образования людей, и это сочетается с

гендерными и поколенческими тенденциями. Распределение по уровню образования

показывает, что, чем выше уровень образования, тем выше доступ к интернету, и это

положение сохраняется довольно постоянно с течением времени. Кроме того, как

правило, мужчины с высоким уровнем образования пользуются интернетом чаще, чем

женщины с таким же уровнем образования.

12. Однако со временем эти различия сместились. Действительно, если сравнить

распределение мужчин и женщин по уровню образования, то можно увидеть, что в

2005 году во всех возрастных группах мужчины с высшим образованием имели

значительно более высокие показатели использования интернета, чем женщины с

таким же уровнем образования (71,1% по сравнению с 56,3%).

13. Однако это положение меняется, если мы посмотрим на самые последние данные за

2022 год, которые показывают, что среди самых молодых людей в возрасте от 11 до 34

лет практически нет различий, потому что, как указывалось ранее, новые поколения

постепенно достигли точки насыщения в использовании интернета; в этой возрастной

группе уровень использования интернета одинаков среди выпускников университетов,

средней школы и лиц, получивших только обязательное образование, независимо от

пола и возраста.

14. С другой стороны, по мере увеличения возраста мы обнаруживаем ситуацию,

аналогичную той, что наблюдалась в 2005 году, хотя и со смещением вверх уровней

пользования интернетом для всех уровней образования и при более высоком уровне

образования уровень пользования интернетом имеет тенденцию к увеличению.

Однако сравнение мужчин и женщин показывает, что разрыв в пользу первых

сокращается по сравнению с 2005 годом: особенно в случае с выпускниками вузов,

где различий почти нет, а уровни пользования интернетом для мужчин и женщин

почти перекрываются (мужчины с высшим образованием в возрасте 55 лет и старше =

85,3%, и женщины с высшим образованием в возрасте 55 лет и старше = 85,3%)

(Диаграмма 5).

Рабочий документ 6

8

Диаграмма 5

Лица в возрасте 11 лет и старше, которые пользовались интернетом не реже одного

раза в неделю в течение последних трех месяцев до опроса, в разбивке по полу,

уровню образования и возрастной группе. 2005 и 2022 годы (в процентах)

Год 2005

Год 2022

Источник: Истат, Обследование аспектов повседневной жизни

II. Выводы

15. За последние тридцать лет в Италии наблюдался постоянный рост пользования

интернетом. Однако не все население привыкло пользоваться интернетом на

регулярной основе (примерно каждый четвертый пользовался им реже одного раза в

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males

11-34 35-54 55 and over Total

Low (ISCED 0, 1, 2) Medium (ISCED 3, 4) High (ISCED 5, 6, 7, 8) Total

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males

11-34 35-54 55 and over Total

Low (ISCED 0, 1, 2) Medium (ISCED 3, 4) High (ISCED 5, 6, 7, 8) Total

Рабочий документ 6

9

неделю в течение трех месяцев, предшествовавших опросу, или вообще не

пользовался интернетом), причем пользование интернетом до сих пор очень тесно

связано с социальными и демографическими факторами. Среди более молодых

поколений с течением времени наблюдался общий рост использования интернета,

который свел на нет гендерные различия, однако гендерный разрыв, ухудшающий

положение людей, все еще сохраняется, что особенно верно для пожилых женщин и

жителей юга.

16. Цифровой капитал продемонстрировал свою важность во времена пандемии, когда он

имел решающее значение в повседневной жизни и для решения задач школьной и

рабочей деятельности, а также участия в общественной и культурной жизни. Однако

столь же очевидным было влияние цифрового разрыва, который продемонстрировал

трудности, с которыми столкнулись те слои населения и регионы, которые именно из-

за отсутствия у них доступа к информационным и коммуникационным технологиям

оказались полностью или частично исключенными из жизни.

Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians Group of Experts on National Accounts Twenty-second session Geneva, 25-27 April 2023 Item 10 of the provisional agenda Item 5 in the Annotated Agenda Well-being and Sustainability

Household final consumption expenditure distributional accounts: harmonising macro and micro data

Note by the National Institute of Statistics of Italy1

Summary Well-being is a multidimensional concept. Average measures of income,

consumption and wealth do not reflect the circumstances and disparities between different household groups. The development of household distributional accounts requires bridging of micro and macro data, which often use different populations, definitions and concepts. The OECD-Eurostat Expert Group on Disparities in a National accounts framework has developed a methodology for the compilation of distributional results on income, consumption and savings on the basis of available micro data sources.

This paper will provide an overview of steps taken by the Institute of Statistics of Italy (ISTAT) to harmonize micro and macro data and compile experimental distributional estimates for household consumption based on national accounts and Household Budget Survey (HBS) data.

1 Sara Basso, Incoronata Donnarumma and Stefania Massari.

United Nations ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/13

Economic and Social Council Distr.: General 6 April 2023 Original: English English only

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I. Introduction

1. Measuring the level and evolution of economic inequality means try to measure people living conditions and individuals and households’ well-being. Well-being is a multidimensional concept including income, consumption and wealth and aggregates and average values are unable to capture disparities between different types of households, still far from being homogeneous.

2. The reconciliation of micro and macro data on households is crucial. In fact, micro data sources (surveys or administrative records) can provide distributional information among households, but they are not consistent across the primary components of economic well-being (e.g. income, consumption and wealth) and not comparable across countries. On the other hand, the System of National Accounts provides comprehensive, consistent, and internationally comparable information but it cannot provide any evidence on distribution of economic resources among groups of households.

3. The distributional accounts are a key issue: information in line with National Accounts totals and able to provide data on the economic resources distribution across households.

4. In order to bridge macro and micro data, National Accounts values can be read jointly with distribution indicators from micro data sources, paying attention to the fact that that macro aggregates may not fit the micro aggregates in terms of definitions and concepts. Adjustments are needed to integrate micro information into System of National Accounts framework.

5. The OECD-Eurostat expert group on disparities in a national accounts framework (EG DNA) has been developing methodology for the compilation of results on income, consumption, and savings.

6. This paper aims at harmonising micro and macro data that is the first step to compile experimental distributional estimates for household consumption. It is based on National Accounts (NA) data as well as survey data for consumption (HBS).

II. The macro and micro perspective: similarities and differences

7. The first step towards accomplishing this task is to develop a good understanding of the exact differences between micro-sources (HBS) and macro-sources (NA). Such differences not only lie in the scope of what constitutes consumption, they also arise from differences in classifications and other adjustments that are specific to each source.

8. To ensure international comparability both the HBS and the NA are based on the harmonized international classification of expenditure items, Classification of Individual Consumption by Purpose (COICOP), but they follow two different regulations: HBS is based on Regulation (EU) 2019/1700, Integrated European Social Statistics; National Accounts are based on "European System of Accounts ESA 2010" that is an internationally compatible accounting framework for a systematic and detailed description of total economy (that is a region, country or group of countries), its components and its relations with other total economies.

9. The HBS focuses on consumption expenditure behaviours of households residing in Italy. It analyses the evolution of level and composition of household consumption expenditure according to their main social, economic, and territorial characteristics. Moreover, it represents the informative base for the official estimates of relative and absolute poverty in Italy and for the inflation measure by household expenditure classes.

10. The main focus of the HBS is represented by all expenditures incurred by resident households to purchase goods and services exclusively devoted to household consumption (including self-consumptions and imputed rentals)); every other expenditure for a different purpose is excluded from the data collection (e. g., payments of fees and business expenditures).

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11. Since 2014, the new HBS has replaced the old survey, which has been carried out between 1997 and 2013.

12. ESA 2010 defines final consumption expenditure as the expenditure incurred by resident institutional units on goods or services that are used for the direct satisfaction of individual needs or wants or the collective needs of members of the community.

13. In NA, final consumption expenditure is calculated as total expenditures made by all households, resident or not, within the economic territory and adjusted by adding the expenditures of residents abroad and subtracting the expenditures of non-residents within the economic territory.

14. According to the ESA 2010 definition, household final consumption expenditure (HFCE) includes the following items that are not detected or differently treated in the HBS:

(i) services of owner-occupied dwellings (ii) income in kind

(iii) financial services directly charged and the part of financial intermediation services indirectly measured (FISIM) used for final consumption purposes by households

(iv) insurance services by the amount of the implicit service charge (v) pension funding services by the amount of the implicit service charge

(vi) illegal activities as narcotics, smuggling of tobacco and prostitution (vii) tips

15. Instead, HFCE expenditure excludes:

(i) social transfers in kind (ii) items treated as intermediate consumption or gross capital formation

16. Table 1 shows the differences between NA and HBS and all items involved. This type of analysis needs to be conducted for the 41 COICOP groups (3-digit) to better understand and detail all the differences that need to be addressed. Not all categories are involved, but there are some groups in those involved requiring more in-depth analysis at the harmonization stage.

Table 1 Differences in definitions and concepts

Group NA HBS

CP01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages

CP011 Food

Own final consumption of agricoltural products: estimated on the basis of statistics on agricultural production

Own final consumption of agricoltural products: quantities are detected by the HBS

CP022 Tobacco Smuggling of cigarettes included Smuggling of cigarettes not detected by the HBS

CP023 Narcotics Included in NA Not detected by the HBS CP03 Clothing and footwear

CP04 Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling

CP042 Imputed rentals for housing Estimated by applying market rents to the housing stock

Imputed rents estimated by the households are detected by HBS

CP043 Maintenance and repair of the dwelling Major maintenance of the dwelling excluded from NA

Major maintenance of the dwelling included in the HBS

CP05 Goods and services for the dwelling

CP06 Health

CP07 Transport CP071 Purchase of vehicles Second-hand cars excludes exchanges of cars between households

Second-hand cars includes exchanges of cars between households

CP08 Communication

CP09 Goods and services for recreation and culture

CP094 Recreational and cultural services Gambling included in NA net of winnings

Gambling included in HBS gross of winnings

CP10 Education

CP111 Catering services Income in kind included in NA Income in kind not detected by the HBS

CP112 Accommodation services Income in kind included in NA Income in kind not detected by the HBS

CP122 Prostitution Included in NA Not detected by the HBS

CP125 Insurance Supplementary insurance premiums included in NA Only insurance services

Supplementary insurance premiums not detected by the HBS Expenditures on insurance are recorded gross of any reimbursements

CP126 Financial services n.e.c. FISIM Included in HFCE FISIM Not detected by the HBS

Restaurants and hotelsCP11

CP12 Miscellaneous goods and services

Division

CP02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics

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17. Own final consumption in agriculture in both domains is close in terms of concept, but different in terms of estimation method. Illegal activities and FISIM in CP02 and CP12 (smuggling of tobacco, narcotics and prostitution) are not detected in HBS, but included in NA. In CP04, imputed rents and major maintenance of dwelling need to be discussed: the estimation method is different between HBS and NA for the first item mentioned, while the second one is not included in NA. In CP07, second-hand cars exchanging between households are excluded in NA but included in HBS (considered as an expenditure as well). Definitions are different also for gambling (CP09) and insurance (CP12).

18. Harmonising HBS and NA is a key step in allocating consumption expenditure among household groups taking into account differences in definitions and concepts but also in reference population.

A. The reference population

19. Following The EG DNA provided recommendations, first step is the correction for expenditures of non-resident households on the territory and of resident households abroad.

20. The choice of 2019 as the reference year is related to the availability of the Tourism Satellite Account for that year and thus the possibility of using this data to adjust some consumption categories.

21. As mentioned above NA HFCE follows a domestic concept (expenditures of non- resident households on the territory are included while expenditures of resident households abroad are excluded) while the HBS follows a national concept (expenditures of non-resident households on the territory are excluded while expenditures of resident households abroad are included).

22. Moreover, the population underlying national accounts differs from the population underlying the HBS. In HBS the survey covers the resident population with the exclusion of persons living permanently in institutions or without a registered place of residence while the reference population in NA is the present population on the national territory at a given date including households and persons living in institutions (convents, boarding schools, prisons, etc.). Reference population according to the NA concept is obtained by subtracting the number of residents temporarily abroad and adding foreigners present on the territory but not resident. Non-resident foreigners, tourists, and foreigners present in Italy for one year or more (non-tourists) are taken into account. Non-resident foreigners include both foreigners with residence permit, but without a residence certificate, and unregistered foreigners without or expired residence permit. Stays in hotels and other accommodation structures for tourists collected by statistics on tourism are used to estimate the non-resident population on the Italian territory.

Table 2 National Accounts consumer population, 2019 (thousands)

23. Once defined the NA reference population, the first attempt to reconcile NA HFCE with HBS is a proportional “removing” the consumption of the population not covered in the micro source using the ratio between the two reference populations (table 3).

Table 3 HBS/NA population, 2019 (thousands)

2019 Resident population (annual average) 59,729 Citizen temporarily resident abroad -393 Non-resident foreigners present for at least one year 540 Foreign tourists 605 NA consumer popolation 60,480

Reference population 2019 HBS (a) 59,211 NA (b) 60,480 Ratio (b/a) 1.021

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24. In fact, due to the lack of detailed information on expenditures of non-resident households on the territory and those of resident households abroad for each COICOP item, implicit coefficient derived is used as a correction coefficient at an aggregated level to move NA figures from domestic to national concept. Of course, this leads to “rough” adjustment, because consumption expenditure by non-residents on territory and resident abroad may vary significantly across consumption items.

25. Table 4 shows the coverage rate (micro aggregate as a percentage of NA total) for all consumption items: first column (“raw data”) is the ratio between HBS and NA without any adjustment. The total coverage rate is 72.3 percent: some items are well covered; some others show a rate less than 50 percent and in the case of the CP04 division the micro item is higher than NA estimate.

26. The correction for expenditures of non-resident households on the territory and of resident households abroad was made applying the population ratio (shown in Table 3) to all COICOP categories leading to a better alignment and a reduction of the micro-macro gap (Table 4).

27. In order to adjust some specific consumption categories at the detailed level (in terms on national concept), information from Tourism Satellite Account is taken into account. The categories involved are imputed rents (CP04), transport services (CP07), recreational and cultural services (CP09), and restaurants and hotels (CP11). This means that mentioned categories are adjusted using the satellite account information and the others by the population ratio (this explains the different coverage rate between column P1 and P2 even for items not covered by the satellite account).

Table 4 Coverage rates for consumption items, 2019

* Proportional adjustment by the ratio between the two reference populations

** Proportional adjustment by the ratio between the two reference populations and tourism satellite account (for specific items)

B. Definitions and concepts

28. After the population adjustment, we need to align NA totals to differences in definitions and concepts. Differences in definitions and concepts can be grouped into two types: treatment of items considered in both domains and types of expenditure covered by the survey but not by the NA, or vice-versa.

29. Table 5 provides information on the comparison between the HBS results and NA estimates. The comparison is made with not adjusted data (first column) and data after the related adjustments (second and third column).

30. Adjustments made for population had already leading HBS/NA ratio from 72.3 to 73.8 for total consumption.

31. Conceptual adjustments consist in excluding from NA those items that are not detected by the survey (e.g. expenses related to illegal activities, FISIM, tips and income in

P1* P2** 01-Food and non-alcoholic beverages 93.0 94.9 95.2 02-Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 31.2 31.9 31.7 03-Clothing and footwear 54.3 55.5 55.7 04-Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 110.4 112.8 111.8 05-Goods and services for the dwelling 52.9 54.0 54.2 06-Health 95.5 97.6 97.9 07-Transport 65.3 66.7 64.3 08-Communication 78.6 80.3 80.5 09-Goods and services for recreation and cultur 51.9 53.0 53.2 10-Education 50.2 51.3 51.4 11-Restaurants and hotels 35.5 36.3 38.4 12-Miscellaneous goods and services 50.8 51.9 52.0 Total 72.3 73.8 73.8

Coicop (1-digit) Coverage Rate

Raw data Adjusted data

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kind) and also some items that, although considered household expenditure by the survey and by NA, are quantified in different ways (e.g. spending on gambling, insurance, etc.).

32. This second step further improves the coverage rate to 77.7 for total consumption, at a more disaggregated level of expenditure, the ratio varies greatly: from 40.5 for the expenditure on restaurants and hotels to 111.8 for the expenditure on housing.

33. It is worth emphasizing that although we have compared the data made homogeneous both for the underlying population and from a conceptual point of view, a rather high gap remains for some consumption divisions, such as clothing and footwear.

Table 5 Coverage rates for consumption items, 2019

* Population adjustment

** Conceptual adjustment 34. It is important to stress that the fit between NA and HBS depends not only on the conceptual differences listed above but also on the sources used in NA to estimate household consumption. Clothing and footwear division is a clear example of this, it has a very low fit even if it has no conceptual differences.

C. National accounts sources

35. NA are not intended to cover aspects of households’ well-being and several sources are used to derive household consumption, including HBS; moreover, balancing process of the National accounts may have relevant impact on consumption estimates.

36. Five main groups of sources and methods identified are the following: commodity flow method (CFM), Household Budget Survey (HBS), Multipurpose Survey (MS), other ISTAT surveys (OIS) and administrative and other sources (Admins).

37. All sources contribute to define the household consumption estimations and refers to specific item. Table 6 shows the sources involved for each consumption item.

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Table 6 Sources in NA household consumption estimation, by COICOP

38. The use of surveys on the demand side and their integration with other sources of information ensure a good degree of coverage, since no source, taken individually, can be considered as appropriate for estimating the overall consumption by COICOP item. The comparison of independent sources allows to capture a part of non-observed economy, not reported in tax statements of companies, an Institute of Statistics of Italy Institute of Statistics of Italy d also to integrate phenomena partially measurable on the basis of information collected from households.

39. Households are not required as business to keep documentation on purchases made in a given period and it is more difficult for them to summarize purchases made: the so-called "memory effect" (for which respondents remember especially the most frequent and recent expenses) can lead to the non-declaration of some of the expenses. Another factor that can generate distortions is related to "socially undesirable" expenditures, such as expenditure on alcohol or gambling, are often under-reported or totally omitted by respondents. For all these reasons, information from HBS is examined and then integrated with other sources.

40. The reliability of HBS data is high for non-durable goods (e.g. food) and much lower in the case of semi-durable and durable goods; the choice of using HBS data also depends on alternative sources available.

41. The HBS is used to estimate spending on food, housing, health services (particularly on health outpatient services), communications and other services included in the COICOP division which refers to miscellaneous goods and services.

42. The balancing procedure is the last step and corrects the discrepancies between the aggregates of resources and uses according to the domestic concept.

III. Micro-macro gap

43. Once all possible adjustments have been made, remaining gaps have to be allocated. The EG DNA guidelines suggest four methods for the gap allocation in order to distribute the NA totals using micro data:

• Method A (direct method): the distribution of the gap is made proportionally to the micro values of same indicator, i.e. applying the same adjustment coefficient (macro total/micro total) to all households (their totals match NA totals);

• Method B (indirect method based on proxies): a missing or unreliable micro component is estimated by using the distribution of another consumption component as a proxy;

• Method C (indirect method based on external data): a missing or unreliable micro component considered can be distributed according to exogenous data (e.g.

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sociodemographic information) available at the level of the individual or of the household;

• Method D (invariant method): the remaining components are distributed in proportion to the total of all the NA and the imputations are made in such a way that the inclusion or exclusion of the component does not affect the distributional results of the main indicators.

44. Eurostat developed a centralised exercise, based on data available to compile distributional results for EU countries. This involved testing other methods for allocating the micro-macro gap:

• Method M1 - Proportional allocation: the entire gap is distributed proportionally over households. The assumption is that the distribution found in the sample survey is close to the real distribution of the household population;

• Method M2 - Pareto tail modelling (complemented by proportional scaling): the measured values for the households above the 90th percentile were adjusted such that the tail distribution conforms to a Pareto distribution. After the Pareto top 10 % adjustment, the remaining gap by item is allocated to all households by simple proportional scaling to match the corresponding NA totals;

• Methods M3.1 and M3.2 – Allocation of ascending/descending gap shares by quintile: method M3.1 suggested under-coverage/under-reporting of higher income groups and represented a ‘to-the-top’ allocation: gap shares 0 %, 10 %, 20 %, 30 %, 40 % to Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5 accordingly. In contrast, method M3.2 assumed an under- coverage/under-reporting of low-income households and comprised a ‘to-the-bottom’ allocation: gap shares 40 %, 30 %, 20 %, 10 %, and 0 % to Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, and Q5 accordingly;

• Method M4 - Combined approach: this method combines the Pareto-based results for property income (received), gross mixed income, and taxes on wealth with the proportionally scaled results for the other items into a disposable income aggregate.

45. Only M1 and M3 methods were deemed suitable for consumption by Eurostat and applied in the centralised exercise.

46. Each COICOP category requires a separate analysis to choose the most suitable method.

47. All the considerations made so far are summarized in table 7 which shows the coverage rate for each COICOP division, but also, in the following two columns, a qualitative assessment which depends respectively on the conceptual fit and the use of HBS as a source in NA.

Table 7 Assessment of “linkage” in COICOP divisions between NA and HBS

48. The result of two last columns “shows” in which division we can assume that using HBS to obtain distributional estimates is a good approximation, i.e. food or communication,

HBS/NA (adjuested for population and

conceptual differences)

Conceptual link

HBS use

CP01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages 96.5 high high CP02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 51.7 low medium CP03 Clothing and footwear 55.7 high low CP04 Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 111.8 medium medium CP05 Goods and services for the dwelling 54.2 high medium CP06 Health 97.9 high high CP07 Transport 64.4 medium medium CP08 Communication 80.5 high high CP09 Goods and services for recreation and culture 71.3 medium medium CP10 Education 51.4 high low CP11 Restaurants and hotels 40.5 medium low CP12 Miscellaneous goods and services 50.6 low low

Division

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whereas miscellaneous good and services where the assessment is low-low, probably need to be investigated in depth.

49. Summing up where the conceptual link and HBS use are indicated as high, method M1 can be applied. Method M1 can be also applied to the items where only the conceptual link is high, even if the use of HBS is indicated as low or medium: micro data are in fact close in conceptual term to the adjusted totals of NA. The only two COICOP items with low conceptual link are CP02 and CP12, mainly due to illegal activities and FISIM. Where the assessment is low both in conceptual link and HBS use probably need of another method for the gap allocation.

IV. Final remarks and way forward

50. Reconciliation of micro and macro data is a key issue to define distributional accounts. NA totals need to be harmonised with HBS in order to use the distributional information provided by the survey in the framework of NA. The distance between NA and HBS is not only related to conceptual differences and reference population but the most part derives from the sources used in NA estimates: this makes reconciliation challenging.

51. The empirical approach required the investigation of all available sources to define and better understand the micro-macro gap and then try to allocate it as properly as possible. All adjustments discussed above try to lead a better alignment between NA and HBS, not only in terms of amounts but especially in terms of definitions and concepts: more these two domains are close in definitions and concepts, more is reasonable using the available HBS distributional information in the NA framework.

52. All available information from Tourism Satellite Account are used to move from domestic to a national concept in categories such as accommodation services, restaurants and hotels and transport.

53. The incoming step is to analyse the estimated household consumption expenditure by quintiles - according to the equivalised sum of the HBS variables related to monetary net income plus imputed rent - and by socio-demographic characteristics.

54. Sensitivity analysis is necessary to assess the impact of different assumptions or allocation method and to estimate the uncertainty range.

55. Some items, such as illegal activities, imputed rents, gambling and FISIM can be related to specific household groups and a dedicated analysis is required. In order to better distribute narcotics (that are not within the scope of HBS), it is possible, for example, to deal with gap allocation using the information available for the different types of drugs. Other sources should be investigated, in order to improve the micro-macro alignment: health satellite account, information coming from the new census may provide some useful information in the analysis of the gap and its allocation for the COICOP items.

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Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians Group of Experts on National Accounts Twenty-second session Geneva, 25-27 April 2023 Item 10 of the provisional agenda Item 5 in the Annotated Agenda Well-being and Sustainability

Household final consumption expenditure distributional accounts: harmonising macro and micro data

Note by the National Institute of Statistics of Italy1

Summary Well-being is a multidimensional concept. Average measures of income,

consumption and wealth do not reflect the circumstances and disparities between different household groups. The development of household distributional accounts requires bridging of micro and macro data, which often use different populations, definitions and concepts. The OECD-Eurostat Expert Group on Disparities in a National accounts framework has developed a methodology for the compilation of distributional results on income, consumption and savings on the basis of available micro data sources.

This paper will provide an overview of steps taken by the Institute of Statistics of Italy (ISTAT) to harmonize micro and macro data and compile experimental distributional estimates for household consumption based on national accounts and Household Budget Survey (HBS) data.

1 Sara Basso, Incoronata Donnarumma and Stefania Massari.

United Nations ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/13

Economic and Social Council Distr.: General 6 April 2023 Original: English English only

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I. Introduction

1. Measuring the level and evolution of economic inequality means try to measure people living conditions and individuals and households’ well-being. Well-being is a multidimensional concept including income, consumption and wealth and aggregates and average values are unable to capture disparities between different types of households, still far from being homogeneous.

2. The reconciliation of micro and macro data on households is crucial. In fact, micro data sources (surveys or administrative records) can provide distributional information among households, but they are not consistent across the primary components of economic well-being (e.g. income, consumption and wealth) and not comparable across countries. On the other hand, the System of National Accounts provides comprehensive, consistent, and internationally comparable information but it cannot provide any evidence on distribution of economic resources among groups of households.

3. The distributional accounts are a key issue: information in line with National Accounts totals and able to provide data on the economic resources distribution across households.

4. In order to bridge macro and micro data, National Accounts values can be read jointly with distribution indicators from micro data sources, paying attention to the fact that that macro aggregates may not fit the micro aggregates in terms of definitions and concepts. Adjustments are needed to integrate micro information into System of National Accounts framework.

5. The OECD-Eurostat expert group on disparities in a national accounts framework (EG DNA) has been developing methodology for the compilation of results on income, consumption, and savings.

6. This paper aims at harmonising micro and macro data that is the first step to compile experimental distributional estimates for household consumption. It is based on National Accounts (NA) data as well as survey data for consumption (HBS).

II. The macro and micro perspective: similarities and differences

7. The first step towards accomplishing this task is to develop a good understanding of the exact differences between micro-sources (HBS) and macro-sources (NA). Such differences not only lie in the scope of what constitutes consumption, they also arise from differences in classifications and other adjustments that are specific to each source.

8. To ensure international comparability both the HBS and the NA are based on the harmonized international classification of expenditure items, Classification of Individual Consumption by Purpose (COICOP), but they follow two different regulations: HBS is based on Regulation (EU) 2019/1700, Integrated European Social Statistics; National Accounts are based on "European System of Accounts ESA 2010" that is an internationally compatible accounting framework for a systematic and detailed description of total economy (that is a region, country or group of countries), its components and its relations with other total economies.

9. The HBS focuses on consumption expenditure behaviours of households residing in Italy. It analyses the evolution of level and composition of household consumption expenditure according to their main social, economic, and territorial characteristics. Moreover, it represents the informative base for the official estimates of relative and absolute poverty in Italy and for the inflation measure by household expenditure classes.

10. The main focus of the HBS is represented by all expenditures incurred by resident households to purchase goods and services exclusively devoted to household consumption (including self-consumptions and imputed rentals)); every other expenditure for a different purpose is excluded from the data collection (e. g., payments of fees and business expenditures).

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11. Since 2014, the new HBS has replaced the old survey, which has been carried out between 1997 and 2013.

12. ESA 2010 defines final consumption expenditure as the expenditure incurred by resident institutional units on goods or services that are used for the direct satisfaction of individual needs or wants or the collective needs of members of the community.

13. In NA, final consumption expenditure is calculated as total expenditures made by all households, resident or not, within the economic territory and adjusted by adding the expenditures of residents abroad and subtracting the expenditures of non-residents within the economic territory.

14. According to the ESA 2010 definition, household final consumption expenditure (HFCE) includes the following items that are not detected or differently treated in the HBS:

(i) services of owner-occupied dwellings (ii) income in kind

(iii) financial services directly charged and the part of financial intermediation services indirectly measured (FISIM) used for final consumption purposes by households

(iv) insurance services by the amount of the implicit service charge (v) pension funding services by the amount of the implicit service charge

(vi) illegal activities as narcotics, smuggling of tobacco and prostitution (vii) tips

15. Instead, HFCE expenditure excludes:

(i) social transfers in kind (ii) items treated as intermediate consumption or gross capital formation

16. Table 1 shows the differences between NA and HBS and all items involved. This type of analysis needs to be conducted for the 41 COICOP groups (3-digit) to better understand and detail all the differences that need to be addressed. Not all categories are involved, but there are some groups in those involved requiring more in-depth analysis at the harmonization stage.

Table 1 Differences in definitions and concepts

Group NA HBS

CP01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages

CP011 Food

Own final consumption of agricoltural products: estimated on the basis of statistics on agricultural production

Own final consumption of agricoltural products: quantities are detected by the HBS

CP022 Tobacco Smuggling of cigarettes included Smuggling of cigarettes not detected by the HBS

CP023 Narcotics Included in NA Not detected by the HBS CP03 Clothing and footwear

CP04 Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling

CP042 Imputed rentals for housing Estimated by applying market rents to the housing stock

Imputed rents estimated by the households are detected by HBS

CP043 Maintenance and repair of the dwelling Major maintenance of the dwelling excluded from NA

Major maintenance of the dwelling included in the HBS

CP05 Goods and services for the dwelling

CP06 Health

CP07 Transport CP071 Purchase of vehicles Second-hand cars excludes exchanges of cars between households

Second-hand cars includes exchanges of cars between households

CP08 Communication

CP09 Goods and services for recreation and culture

CP094 Recreational and cultural services Gambling included in NA net of winnings

Gambling included in HBS gross of winnings

CP10 Education

CP111 Catering services Income in kind included in NA Income in kind not detected by the HBS

CP112 Accommodation services Income in kind included in NA Income in kind not detected by the HBS

CP122 Prostitution Included in NA Not detected by the HBS

CP125 Insurance Supplementary insurance premiums included in NA Only insurance services

Supplementary insurance premiums not detected by the HBS Expenditures on insurance are recorded gross of any reimbursements

CP126 Financial services n.e.c. FISIM Included in HFCE FISIM Not detected by the HBS

Restaurants and hotelsCP11

CP12 Miscellaneous goods and services

Division

CP02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics

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17. Own final consumption in agriculture in both domains is close in terms of concept, but different in terms of estimation method. Illegal activities and FISIM in CP02 and CP12 (smuggling of tobacco, narcotics and prostitution) are not detected in HBS, but included in NA. In CP04, imputed rents and major maintenance of dwelling need to be discussed: the estimation method is different between HBS and NA for the first item mentioned, while the second one is not included in NA. In CP07, second-hand cars exchanging between households are excluded in NA but included in HBS (considered as an expenditure as well). Definitions are different also for gambling (CP09) and insurance (CP12).

18. Harmonising HBS and NA is a key step in allocating consumption expenditure among household groups taking into account differences in definitions and concepts but also in reference population.

A. The reference population

19. Following The EG DNA provided recommendations, first step is the correction for expenditures of non-resident households on the territory and of resident households abroad.

20. The choice of 2019 as the reference year is related to the availability of the Tourism Satellite Account for that year and thus the possibility of using this data to adjust some consumption categories.

21. As mentioned above NA HFCE follows a domestic concept (expenditures of non- resident households on the territory are included while expenditures of resident households abroad are excluded) while the HBS follows a national concept (expenditures of non-resident households on the territory are excluded while expenditures of resident households abroad are included).

22. Moreover, the population underlying national accounts differs from the population underlying the HBS. In HBS the survey covers the resident population with the exclusion of persons living permanently in institutions or without a registered place of residence while the reference population in NA is the present population on the national territory at a given date including households and persons living in institutions (convents, boarding schools, prisons, etc.). Reference population according to the NA concept is obtained by subtracting the number of residents temporarily abroad and adding foreigners present on the territory but not resident. Non-resident foreigners, tourists, and foreigners present in Italy for one year or more (non-tourists) are taken into account. Non-resident foreigners include both foreigners with residence permit, but without a residence certificate, and unregistered foreigners without or expired residence permit. Stays in hotels and other accommodation structures for tourists collected by statistics on tourism are used to estimate the non-resident population on the Italian territory.

Table 2 National Accounts consumer population, 2019 (thousands)

23. Once defined the NA reference population, the first attempt to reconcile NA HFCE with HBS is a proportional “removing” the consumption of the population not covered in the micro source using the ratio between the two reference populations (table 3).

Table 3 HBS/NA population, 2019 (thousands)

2019 Resident population (annual average) 59,729 Citizen temporarily resident abroad -393 Non-resident foreigners present for at least one year 540 Foreign tourists 605 NA consumer popolation 60,480

Reference population 2019 HBS (a) 59,211 NA (b) 60,480 Ratio (b/a) 1.021

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24. In fact, due to the lack of detailed information on expenditures of non-resident households on the territory and those of resident households abroad for each COICOP item, implicit coefficient derived is used as a correction coefficient at an aggregated level to move NA figures from domestic to national concept. Of course, this leads to “rough” adjustment, because consumption expenditure by non-residents on territory and resident abroad may vary significantly across consumption items.

25. Table 4 shows the coverage rate (micro aggregate as a percentage of NA total) for all consumption items: first column (“raw data”) is the ratio between HBS and NA without any adjustment. The total coverage rate is 72.3 percent: some items are well covered; some others show a rate less than 50 percent and in the case of the CP04 division the micro item is higher than NA estimate.

26. The correction for expenditures of non-resident households on the territory and of resident households abroad was made applying the population ratio (shown in Table 3) to all COICOP categories leading to a better alignment and a reduction of the micro-macro gap (Table 4).

27. In order to adjust some specific consumption categories at the detailed level (in terms on national concept), information from Tourism Satellite Account is taken into account. The categories involved are imputed rents (CP04), transport services (CP07), recreational and cultural services (CP09), and restaurants and hotels (CP11). This means that mentioned categories are adjusted using the satellite account information and the others by the population ratio (this explains the different coverage rate between column P1 and P2 even for items not covered by the satellite account).

Table 4 Coverage rates for consumption items, 2019

* Proportional adjustment by the ratio between the two reference populations

** Proportional adjustment by the ratio between the two reference populations and tourism satellite account (for specific items)

B. Definitions and concepts

28. After the population adjustment, we need to align NA totals to differences in definitions and concepts. Differences in definitions and concepts can be grouped into two types: treatment of items considered in both domains and types of expenditure covered by the survey but not by the NA, or vice-versa.

29. Table 5 provides information on the comparison between the HBS results and NA estimates. The comparison is made with not adjusted data (first column) and data after the related adjustments (second and third column).

30. Adjustments made for population had already leading HBS/NA ratio from 72.3 to 73.8 for total consumption.

31. Conceptual adjustments consist in excluding from NA those items that are not detected by the survey (e.g. expenses related to illegal activities, FISIM, tips and income in

P1* P2** 01-Food and non-alcoholic beverages 93.0 94.9 95.2 02-Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 31.2 31.9 31.7 03-Clothing and footwear 54.3 55.5 55.7 04-Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 110.4 112.8 111.8 05-Goods and services for the dwelling 52.9 54.0 54.2 06-Health 95.5 97.6 97.9 07-Transport 65.3 66.7 64.3 08-Communication 78.6 80.3 80.5 09-Goods and services for recreation and cultur 51.9 53.0 53.2 10-Education 50.2 51.3 51.4 11-Restaurants and hotels 35.5 36.3 38.4 12-Miscellaneous goods and services 50.8 51.9 52.0 Total 72.3 73.8 73.8

Coicop (1-digit) Coverage Rate

Raw data Adjusted data

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kind) and also some items that, although considered household expenditure by the survey and by NA, are quantified in different ways (e.g. spending on gambling, insurance, etc.).

32. This second step further improves the coverage rate to 77.7 for total consumption, at a more disaggregated level of expenditure, the ratio varies greatly: from 40.5 for the expenditure on restaurants and hotels to 111.8 for the expenditure on housing.

33. It is worth emphasizing that although we have compared the data made homogeneous both for the underlying population and from a conceptual point of view, a rather high gap remains for some consumption divisions, such as clothing and footwear.

Table 5 Coverage rates for consumption items, 2019

* Population adjustment

** Conceptual adjustment 34. It is important to stress that the fit between NA and HBS depends not only on the conceptual differences listed above but also on the sources used in NA to estimate household consumption. Clothing and footwear division is a clear example of this, it has a very low fit even if it has no conceptual differences.

C. National accounts sources

35. NA are not intended to cover aspects of households’ well-being and several sources are used to derive household consumption, including HBS; moreover, balancing process of the National accounts may have relevant impact on consumption estimates.

36. Five main groups of sources and methods identified are the following: commodity flow method (CFM), Household Budget Survey (HBS), Multipurpose Survey (MS), other ISTAT surveys (OIS) and administrative and other sources (Admins).

37. All sources contribute to define the household consumption estimations and refers to specific item. Table 6 shows the sources involved for each consumption item.

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Table 6 Sources in NA household consumption estimation, by COICOP

38. The use of surveys on the demand side and their integration with other sources of information ensure a good degree of coverage, since no source, taken individually, can be considered as appropriate for estimating the overall consumption by COICOP item. The comparison of independent sources allows to capture a part of non-observed economy, not reported in tax statements of companies, an Institute of Statistics of Italy Institute of Statistics of Italy d also to integrate phenomena partially measurable on the basis of information collected from households.

39. Households are not required as business to keep documentation on purchases made in a given period and it is more difficult for them to summarize purchases made: the so-called "memory effect" (for which respondents remember especially the most frequent and recent expenses) can lead to the non-declaration of some of the expenses. Another factor that can generate distortions is related to "socially undesirable" expenditures, such as expenditure on alcohol or gambling, are often under-reported or totally omitted by respondents. For all these reasons, information from HBS is examined and then integrated with other sources.

40. The reliability of HBS data is high for non-durable goods (e.g. food) and much lower in the case of semi-durable and durable goods; the choice of using HBS data also depends on alternative sources available.

41. The HBS is used to estimate spending on food, housing, health services (particularly on health outpatient services), communications and other services included in the COICOP division which refers to miscellaneous goods and services.

42. The balancing procedure is the last step and corrects the discrepancies between the aggregates of resources and uses according to the domestic concept.

III. Micro-macro gap

43. Once all possible adjustments have been made, remaining gaps have to be allocated. The EG DNA guidelines suggest four methods for the gap allocation in order to distribute the NA totals using micro data:

• Method A (direct method): the distribution of the gap is made proportionally to the micro values of same indicator, i.e. applying the same adjustment coefficient (macro total/micro total) to all households (their totals match NA totals);

• Method B (indirect method based on proxies): a missing or unreliable micro component is estimated by using the distribution of another consumption component as a proxy;

• Method C (indirect method based on external data): a missing or unreliable micro component considered can be distributed according to exogenous data (e.g.

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sociodemographic information) available at the level of the individual or of the household;

• Method D (invariant method): the remaining components are distributed in proportion to the total of all the NA and the imputations are made in such a way that the inclusion or exclusion of the component does not affect the distributional results of the main indicators.

44. Eurostat developed a centralised exercise, based on data available to compile distributional results for EU countries. This involved testing other methods for allocating the micro-macro gap:

• Method M1 - Proportional allocation: the entire gap is distributed proportionally over households. The assumption is that the distribution found in the sample survey is close to the real distribution of the household population;

• Method M2 - Pareto tail modelling (complemented by proportional scaling): the measured values for the households above the 90th percentile were adjusted such that the tail distribution conforms to a Pareto distribution. After the Pareto top 10 % adjustment, the remaining gap by item is allocated to all households by simple proportional scaling to match the corresponding NA totals;

• Methods M3.1 and M3.2 – Allocation of ascending/descending gap shares by quintile: method M3.1 suggested under-coverage/under-reporting of higher income groups and represented a ‘to-the-top’ allocation: gap shares 0 %, 10 %, 20 %, 30 %, 40 % to Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5 accordingly. In contrast, method M3.2 assumed an under- coverage/under-reporting of low-income households and comprised a ‘to-the-bottom’ allocation: gap shares 40 %, 30 %, 20 %, 10 %, and 0 % to Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, and Q5 accordingly;

• Method M4 - Combined approach: this method combines the Pareto-based results for property income (received), gross mixed income, and taxes on wealth with the proportionally scaled results for the other items into a disposable income aggregate.

45. Only M1 and M3 methods were deemed suitable for consumption by Eurostat and applied in the centralised exercise.

46. Each COICOP category requires a separate analysis to choose the most suitable method.

47. All the considerations made so far are summarized in table 7 which shows the coverage rate for each COICOP division, but also, in the following two columns, a qualitative assessment which depends respectively on the conceptual fit and the use of HBS as a source in NA.

Table 7 Assessment of “linkage” in COICOP divisions between NA and HBS

48. The result of two last columns “shows” in which division we can assume that using HBS to obtain distributional estimates is a good approximation, i.e. food or communication,

HBS/NA (adjuested for population and

conceptual differences)

Conceptual link

HBS use

CP01 Food and non-alcoholic beverages 96.5 high high CP02 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco and narcotics 51.7 low medium CP03 Clothing and footwear 55.7 high low CP04 Rents, fuels and maintenance of the dwelling 111.8 medium medium CP05 Goods and services for the dwelling 54.2 high medium CP06 Health 97.9 high high CP07 Transport 64.4 medium medium CP08 Communication 80.5 high high CP09 Goods and services for recreation and culture 71.3 medium medium CP10 Education 51.4 high low CP11 Restaurants and hotels 40.5 medium low CP12 Miscellaneous goods and services 50.6 low low

Division

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whereas miscellaneous good and services where the assessment is low-low, probably need to be investigated in depth.

49. Summing up where the conceptual link and HBS use are indicated as high, method M1 can be applied. Method M1 can be also applied to the items where only the conceptual link is high, even if the use of HBS is indicated as low or medium: micro data are in fact close in conceptual term to the adjusted totals of NA. The only two COICOP items with low conceptual link are CP02 and CP12, mainly due to illegal activities and FISIM. Where the assessment is low both in conceptual link and HBS use probably need of another method for the gap allocation.

IV. Final remarks and way forward

50. Reconciliation of micro and macro data is a key issue to define distributional accounts. NA totals need to be harmonised with HBS in order to use the distributional information provided by the survey in the framework of NA. The distance between NA and HBS is not only related to conceptual differences and reference population but the most part derives from the sources used in NA estimates: this makes reconciliation challenging.

51. The empirical approach required the investigation of all available sources to define and better understand the micro-macro gap and then try to allocate it as properly as possible. All adjustments discussed above try to lead a better alignment between NA and HBS, not only in terms of amounts but especially in terms of definitions and concepts: more these two domains are close in definitions and concepts, more is reasonable using the available HBS distributional information in the NA framework.

52. All available information from Tourism Satellite Account are used to move from domestic to a national concept in categories such as accommodation services, restaurants and hotels and transport.

53. The incoming step is to analyse the estimated household consumption expenditure by quintiles - according to the equivalised sum of the HBS variables related to monetary net income plus imputed rent - and by socio-demographic characteristics.

54. Sensitivity analysis is necessary to assess the impact of different assumptions or allocation method and to estimate the uncertainty range.

55. Some items, such as illegal activities, imputed rents, gambling and FISIM can be related to specific household groups and a dedicated analysis is required. In order to better distribute narcotics (that are not within the scope of HBS), it is possible, for example, to deal with gap allocation using the information available for the different types of drugs. Other sources should be investigated, in order to improve the micro-macro alignment: health satellite account, information coming from the new census may provide some useful information in the analysis of the gap and its allocation for the COICOP items.

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References Blanchet T., Chancel L., Gethin A. (2019), “How Unequal Is Europe? Evidence from Distributional National Accounts, 1980-2017”. WID.world Working Paper N° 2019/06. Chancel L., Etropolska V., Fixler D., Jayyoussi H., Johnson D., Martins M., Neri A., Sabelhaus J., Seneviratne A., Sola P., Todorova A., Tonkin R., Valdes Martinez J., Webber D. and Zwijnenburg J. (2021), “Guidance note on Distribution of household income, consumption and wealth” - Version: July 2021. Coli A., Tartamella F. (2017), “Developing Households’ sub-sectors accounts: Pros and cons of the top-down and the bottom-up methods”. Statistical Journal of the IAOS vol.33, pp. 525– 535. Coli A., Istatkov R., Jayyousi H., Oehler F., Tsigkas O. (2022), “Distributional national account estimates for household income and consumption: methodological issues and experimental results”. Luxembourg, European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-statistical-workingpapers/-/ks-tc-21-010 Eurostat (2013), European system of accounts ESA 2010, Luxembourg Fesseau, M., Mattonetti, M. (2013), “Distributional measures across household groups in a national accounts framework: Results from an experimental cross-country exercise on household income, consumption and saving” OECD Statistics Working Papers, No. 2013/04. https://doi.org/10.1787/5k3wdjqr775f-en Fesseau M. and Van de Ven P. (2014), “Measuring inequality in income and consumption in a national accounts framework”. Statistics Brief, Oecd n. 19. Guzzardi D., Palagi E., Roventini A., Santoro A. (2022), “Reconstructing Income Inequality in Italy: New Evidence and Tax Policy Implications from Distributional National Accounts”. LEM Papers Series 2022/06, Laboratory of Economics and Management (LEM), Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy. Lustig N. (2018), “Measuring the Distribution of Household Income, Consumption and Wealth: State of Play and Measurement Challenges”. Working Papers 1801, Tulane University, Department of Economics. OECD (2020) Distributional Information on Household Income, Consumption and Saving in Line with National Accounts – Guidelines – Version December (2020). https://www.oecd.org/sdd/na/OECD-EG-DNA-Guidelines.pdf United Nations Statistics Division (2000), Classifcation of Individual Consumption According to Purpose (COICOP) 1999. Statistical Papers, Series M No. 84. United Nations Statistics Division (2018), Classifcation of Individual Consumption According to Purpose (COICOP) 2018. Statistical Papers, Series M No. 99. Zwijnenburg, J.,Bournot S., Grahn D. and Guidetti E. (2021) “Distribution of household income, consumption and saving in line with national accounts – Methodology and results from the 2020 collection round”. OECD Statistics Working Papers, n° No 2021/01, Éditions OCDE, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/615c9eec-en Zwijnenburg J. (2022), “The Use of Distributional National Accounts in Better Capturing the Top Tail of the Distribution”. The Journal of Economic Inequality 20, pp. 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-022-09534-w.

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Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians Group of Experts on National Accounts Twenty-second session Geneva, 25-27 April 2023 Item 3 of the provisional agenda Globalization

Towards the compilation of eSUT for Italian economy

Prepared by ISTAT – Italian National Institute of Statistics1

Summary It is strongly agreed that a higher granularity within the SNA framework of accounting

would boost the capability of identifying and interpreting globalisation and the increasing heterogeneity of structures, strategies and performances of different typologies of business units. In this context, the compilation of extended Supply and Use Tables (eSUT) represents a promising way to meet those emerging analytical needs. Moreover, the information included in eSUT framework may also provide a starting point for the compilation of extended Input-Output Tables (eIOT), which can be in turn used for impact and structural (relational) analyses.This work presents the state of art of the pilot to develop an eSUT framework for the Italian economy. The scheme considers a sectoral breakdown along three dimensions: governance status, market status and size-class. Several aggregates are taken into account, ranging from demography to employment, from production to operative margins, where the coverage with respect to total National Accounts ranges from 80% to 90% according on the given aggregate. This granularity has been obtained by exploiting firm- level information provided by different Istat databases (Frame-SBS, ASIA, COE-TEC and other), which allowed for a wide use of microdata in assigning the characteristics related to each business unit to the given strata.At the current stage, the pilot allowed to replicate a large part of the main supply-side aggregates by economic activity analyzing interesting issues related to the patterns of the Italian business system. Future developments aimed at completing the scheme should include: the representation of international trade in services (including merchanting and processing) from microdata; the inclusion of conceptual adjustments and balancing of SUT; the disaggregation by product and the representation of intermediate consumption and final demand (consumption and investments); the definition of eIOT framework following the eSUT disaggregation.

1 Prepared by Federico Sallusti and Stefania Cuicchio. Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in this

work are the ones of the authors themselves and do not involve the responsibility of the Italian National Institute of Statistics.

United Nations ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

Economic and Social Council Distr.: General 11 April 2023 English only

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

I. Introduction

1. In the last decades, the progressive removal of trade barriers and the development of communication technologies increased the process of integration of markets for trade and FDIs, and boosted the formation of Global Value-Chains (GVCs). This is strongly challenging the conventional framework of accounting for international trade flows and production processes that may not provide an adequate and comparable representation of countries' activity levels. Indeed, traditional gross measures of imports and exports are now less informative, while the increasing heterogeneity in structure, strategies and economic features of business units is hardly captured by sector-based Supply and Use (SUT) and/or Input-Output (IO) tables.

2. New approaches, such as Trade-in-Value-Added (TiVA) or multi-regional Input- Output (e.g., WIOD, Figaro initiative, ICIO) in recent years to improve the effectiveness of macro-economic information in interpreting these emerging phenomena. These frameworks, however, suffer from the implicit assumption of homogeneity of business units within the same sector of economic activity (e.g., same technical coefficients). In other words, while TiVA and multi-regional IO provide a ‘’net” representation of international trade, which is more effective in accounting for the role of GVCs, they can hardly support the knowledge about the implications and impacts arising from the increasing heterogeneity of business units.

3. In this context, three main patterns of firms’ heterogeneity are considered the most relevant. The first one relates to their “trading status”, i.e. the extent to which business units are oriented towards domestic or foreign markets in order to sell their output and/or to purchase production inputs. The second element of heterogeneity is connected with the size of the firm, while the third one is represented by the “governance status”, i.e. the national or foreign ownership (belonging to domestic or foreign groups). Along these dimensions of heterogeneity, economic and strategic behaviors of firms strongly differ, this involving a reduced effectiveness of analyses based on some “representative” and/or “average” unit within industries.

4. There is a wide agreement about the possibility that an extension of the traditional sector-based SUT/IOT scheme may represent a relevant improvement in accounting for firms’ heterogeneity and, at the same time, a bridge between the national and global perspectives in the analysis of production. Indeed, the extension of SUT (eSUT) framework is aimed at providing a more granular description of production processes by accounting for the different dimensions of firms’ heterogeneity. In particular, a finer breakdown of information that takes into account different types of enterprises based on trading status, size and governance status should improve the capability of SUT framework to capture the increasing complexity and integration of production processes.

5. Obviously, the extension of the SUT framework entails several issues, ranging from the availability of micro-data to confidentiality, from the difficulty of breaking-down information by product, to the strong concern represented by the possibility of representing the role of trade intermediaries in foreign markets. That notwithstanding, eSUT represents a promising way to improve the capability to understand and represent the behavior of domestic business systems in a globalized economy.

6. This paper presents the results of the pilot activity that Istat (the Italian National Statistical Office) is developing to obtain eSUT for the Italian economy. In fact, the wide availability of microdata related to business statistics, international trade and governance set- ups allows for comprehensive information on the different patterns of firms’ heterogeneity and makes it possible to obtain a granular representation for a large part of the information contained in the traditional SUT scheme, at least from its “by-sector” component.

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7. At this stage, in particular, eSUT replicates a large share (about 90%) of the flows related to a wide set of aggregates (production, intermediate costs, value added and operative margins, employment, firms demography, structure of imports and exports of goods) for 48 typologies of business units, defined over 4 trading statuses, 4 size-classes and 3 governance statuses for each industry.

8. Starting from this granular information, this paper provides a preliminary analysis of some phenomena characterizing the role played by Multi-National Enterprises (MNEs) in the Italian economy in comparison with that Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).Although the pilot represents a significant step forward, the eSUT for Italian economy should be completed. The main future improvements will include: a more detailed representation of international trade in services (including processing) from micro-data; the inclusion of conceptual adjustments and balancing of SUT; the analysis by product and the representation of intermediate consumption and domestic final demand (consumption and investments); the definition of IOT framework following the eSUT disaggregation.

9. The paper is structured as follows. The second section is aimed at presenting the structure of eSUT, the aggregates that are included and the data used to compile it. The third section is devoted to present the results of the analyses carried out by using the information of eSUT. The last section concludes with some perspectives on future development of the analyses.

II. Data sources, structure and aggregates

10. In Italy, the SUT consists of 98 industries and 256 products. Information from micro- data covers a large share of the total National Accounts figures. On the supply-side, direct estimation methods – survey, census, administrative records – account for a large part of output (88.7%), intermediate costs (97.2%), value added (76.5%) and imports (100%) for observed economy, while extrapolation models are used for the remaining flows, including conceptual adjustments and supply-demand balancing. Exhaustiveness adjustments (accounting for about 20% of value added), on the other hand, are based on a wide range of different models, largely exploiting microdata. On the demand side, the flow of exports is measured by using direct estimates from surveys, census and administrative records, while a relevant use of indirect methods and extrapolation model is done in estimating final consumption and investments.

11. The extensive use of micro-data allows for a detailed and reliable disaggregation of results for a relevant set of aggregates. In particular, in order to account for the aforementioned patterns of firms’ heterogeneity, the extension with respect to the sector- based set-up of SUT have been obtained by considering different typologies of business units according to three dimensions: trading status, size- class, governance status.

12. As for trading status, firms have been broken-down into four categories: not internationalized (i.e., business units that neither import nor export); only importers (i.e., business units that import but do not export); only exporters (i.e., business units that export but do not import); two-way traders (i.e., business units that both import and export). In this context, firms are considered as importers and/or exporters if they have a positive value of imports and/or exports in the reference year. The related information is gathered from TEC (Trade by Enterprise Characteristic) database.2

13. Size-classes are defined over four categories that are intended to capture different organizational and behavioral set-ups: micro-enterprises (1 up to 10 workers); small enterprises (from 10 up to 50 workers); medium enterprises (from 50 up to 250 workers);

2 Alternative definitions of exporters/importers could be used, such as selecting foreign trade

relationships only in presence of stronger signals based on the share of exports and imports in sales and total costs. For this pilot, however, the simplest definition is used, while more complex categorization may be used in future developments.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

large enterprises (more than 250 workers).3 The related information is gathered from the ASIA Archive, which reports about the size, location and demography of resident enterprises.

14. Finally, governance status is defined over three categories, which are intended to grasp the typology and residence (national or foreign) of the ownership. In particular, the category of domestics includes business units that are owned by resident operators or that belong to domestic groups; Domestic MNEs are firms that belong to multinational groups with global decision centers in Italy; Foreign MNEs are domestic units that belong to multinational groups with foreign global decision center. The related information is gathered from the ASIA groups archive, which reports about the structure of domestic and multinational groups in which resident enterprises are involved as affiliate or parent.

15. Interacting the categories over these three dimensions of heterogeneity, 48 typologies of business units are obtained that allows, considering 98 industries, to derive the matrix-like scheme in Figure 1 for a set of National Account aggregates. This matrix permits, for each aggregate taken into consideration, to breakdown the total of economic activities (the marginal column) into the different typologies (rows) and to obtain partial totals by typology (the marginal row).4

Figure 1 Activity-typology matrix scheme for breaking down National Account aggregates

16. In particular, this scheme is compiled for the following aggregates (information):

• Number of business units

• Output

• Intermediate consumption

• Value added

• Employment

• Compensation of employees

• Gross operating surplus

• Imports of goods

• Exports of goods5

3 Also in case of size class, more complex measures of firm size could be used that also take into

accounts other characteristics (such as turnover, age, level of capitalisation). A break-down of firms based on such more complex measures of size could be used in further developments.

4 At this stage, in which the structure by-product is not considered, the matrix in Figure 1 allows a more straightforward representation of results.

5 For imports and exports, the scheme in Figure 1 can be widen by adding a third dimension which account for the origin of imports and destination of export in terms of country (geographical area).

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

17. For each of these aggregates, both the observed economy and several adjustments for exhaustiveness are considered. In this context, Figure 2 shows the coverage of the pilot.6

Figure 2 Coverage of pilot

Covering Not covering

Observed economy Observed economy Survey and census Conceptual adjustment (ESA2010) Administrative data Imports and exports of services Combined data Imports and exports of goods

Adjustment for exhaustiveness Adjustment for exhaustiveness Value added from un-registered workers (N1) Illegal economy (N2) Business units outside the scope of SBS (N4) Statistical deficiencies of data (N7) Microfirms, outworkers (N5) Under-reporting (N6)

18. The coverage with respect to total National Accounts figure for each aggregate is obtained by exploiting a wide range of data sources, which refer to both micro- and meso- information. More in detail, Figure 3 show the correspondence between the database used as informative source and the given aggregate to be broken down according to the structure of eSUT.

19. As for micro-database, Frame-SBS Register is an integrated database which, by integrating the information from surveys and administrative records (e.g., balance sheets, fiscal reports), contains a wide range of structural, demographic and economic information about the whole population of Italian active business units.

20. The ASIA group register collects the information about the position of Italian firms within domestic and multinational groups (with both Italian and foreign global decision center).

21. The TEC archive contains the information about the imports and exports of goods – including the country of origin/destination of trade flows – for the whole population of Italian business units.

22. Frame NOE register includes, for the whole population of active firms, the information about possible under-reporting of value added.7

23. The ASIA LeU Register is an extension of the ASIA register of active enterprises considering also the business units which, for their size and economic behavior, are excluded from Frame SBS.

24. Finally, the Social security database contains information about the activity of outworkers.

6 At this stage, the pilot considers business units that operate within the economic activities that are in

the scope of Structural Business Statistics (SBS). This involves the exclusion of agriculture, financial intermediaries and insurance companies and general government.

7 The under-reporting of value added by business units is estimated at micro level by using different indirect methods according to the characteristics of the firms in terms of size-class and other structural characteristics, such as the presence of physical capital, the industry in which operates.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

Figure 3 Correspondence between informative source and aggregates

Micro-data

Frame SBS Register Output, costs, value added, compensation of employees, operative margin, employment for resident business units within the scope of SBS

ASIA Group Register Structure and governance of domestic and multinational groups TEC Archive Imports and exports by resident business units and country of

origin/destination Frame NOE Register Adjustment for under-reporting for treatable resident business units

within the scope of SBS (N6) ASIALeU Register Adjustment for resident units outside the scope of SBS (N4) Social security database Outworkers (N5)

Meso-data

Employment database Un-registered employees and self-employed, workers, positions, hours worked and FTEs

NOE database Value added from un-registered workers, other underground components (N1)

25. As for meso-database, the Employment database contains the information about the number of un-registered employees and self-employed within 4-digits NACE and size-class strata, also considering jobs, hours worked and FTEs.

26. NOE database finally contains meso-information about the other component of NOE, where the most relevant is the value added generated by un-registered workers, which is estimated within industry-size class strata.

27. Considering the information shown in Figures 2 and 3 is possible to define how the National Account aggregates taken into account are treated in order to breakdown industry- based figures according to the structure of the eSUT pilot.

28. In particular, items included in observed economy are broken-down into each typology at micro- level, i.e. the values related to each business units is assigned to the relative typology according to the characteristics of the given firms.

29. As for the adjustments for exhaustiveness, the values connected with business units outside the scope of SBS (N4), micro-firms and outworkers (N5), and under-reporting (N6) are assigned to typologies exploiting micro-data. The value added from un-registered workers is instead allocated using industry-size class strata (excluding by definition multinational enterprises – independently from the location of the decision center – and firms that are in some way internationalized).8

III. Using eSUT for economic analysis

A. Introduction

30. As shown in the preceding section, by exploiting several data sources, a finer breakdown of National Account figures can be obtained in order to consider different dimensions of heterogeneity of business units. Indeed, the eSUT compiled according to the scheme of the pilot allows to shed light on a set of emerging phenomena, accounting for the role of different typologies of firms. In particular, in this work the focus has been put on three elements, which are separately coped with in the following sub-sections: the role of MNEs; the role of internationalized firms; the role of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).

8 This information is normally produced at 4 digits NACE-size class level.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

B. The role of MNEs

31. In 2019, more than 45K business units belong to multinational groups, where 40% (18.3K) are involved in multinational groups with foreign global decision center and 60% (27.5K) are involved in multinational groups with Italian global decision center. Even though MNEs represent slightly more that 1% of the whole population of Italian business units (about 4.3 million) in terms of number of firms, they are strongly relevant in terms of other economic indicators. Indeed, MNEs generate 25% of total value added, employ 20% of the whole workforce and represent 75% of international trade flows (imports and exports).

32. In this context, Figure 4 displays economic and structural indicators by governance status that may help understand some features of MNEs with respect to domestic business units. In particular, MNEs are found to be less vertically integrated than domestic firms: the latter shows an average value added- to-output ratio of 0.52, while MNEs report largely lower values (0.31 for MNEs with Italian global decision center, 0.30 for MNEs with foreign global decision center). MNEs also show a higher profits-to-value added ratio (0.54 for both typologies) than domestic firms (0.43), but a lower profits-to-output ratio (0.16 for both kinds of MNEs vs. 0.23).

Figure 4 Economic and structural indicators by governance status

33. As for the labour market, Figure 5 shows that MNEs show a higher productivity: their value added- per- worker is by far larger (94.8K euro per worker for both domestic and foreign MNEs) than in other business units (on average 72.9K euro per worker for domestics). However, average compensation of employees results to be higher for domestics (45.8K euro per worker) with respect to MNEs (43.9K euro for MNEs with Italian global decision center and 43.8K euro for MNEs with foreign global decision center). Consequently, MNEs show a higher mark-up on labour cost (that range from 2.16 to 2.17) than the one reported by domestic enterprises (1.59).

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

Figure 5 Labour productivity and labour market indicators by governance status

Figure 6 Internationalization indicators by governance status

34. MNEs have a leading role also in international trade. As figure 6 displays, indeed, MNEs shows a higher level for all indicators of internationalization. Considering the international trade openness indicator – defined as the share of total imports and exports on output – domestic firms show a value of 11%, which is by far lower than 43% of Italian MNEs and 78% of foreign MNEs. This trend toward a higher openness is confirmed also looking at the decomposition of trade openness indicator: both for export and import propensities, MNEs have higher values than domestic: between 0.28 (Italian MNEs) and 0.37 (foreign MNEs) vs. 0.07 for exports and between 0.22 (Italian MNEs) and 0.59 (foreign MNEs) vs. 0.10 for imports.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

C. The role of internationalized firms

35. Considering trading status, domestic firms, i.e. business units that neither export nor import goods,9 represent 96% of the whole population. In manufacturing, this share lowers to about 80%, where 8% of firms are two-way traders. In terms of employment, two-way traders account for slightly less than 19% of the total workforce, while domestics employ about 72% of workers.

36. As Figure 7 shows, 66% of total value added is produced by domestic firms, while 25% is generated by two-way trader; only importers and only exporters respectively account for 5% and 4% of the value added of the Italian business system.

37. The relevance of internationalized firms strongly change according to industry. Indeed, in manufacturing 68% of value added is generated by two-way traders, while only 20% is produced by domestics. The impact of internationalized firms is also important in trade, where they account for about 53% of value added (36% for two-way traders), and in transportation, where the share is 42% (23% for two-way traders).

Figure 7 Value added composition by industry and market status

38. The trading status is an interesting perspective also to analyse the performance of firms. Indeed, there is a large agreement on the correlation between internationalization and labour productivity. As shown in Figure 8, even within a relevant sectoral heterogeneity, two- way traders are found to be more productive than other typologies of business units: overall, they generate 86.7K euros of value added per worker, while domestics show a labour productivity of 59.3K euro per worker, and only exporters and only importers, respectively 59.7K and 72.0 K euro.

39. Two-way traders are more productive than other typologies of business units in all industries but mining and quarrying and energy, where domestics have a leading role, and transportation, where instead only importers are the more productive typology of firms. The differential in productivity between two-way traders and domestics is particularly high in construction (74.3K vs. 40.0K euro per worker), trade (81.9K vs. 31.1K), hotel and restaurants (51.4K vs. 22.1K) and personal services (113.6K vs. 44.1K).

9 At the current stage, the pilot considers only imports and exports of goods.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

Figure 8 Labour productivity by industry and market status

40. Also in manufacturing, where the role of international trade is relevant, there is a remarkable difference in productivity among the typologies of business units. Indeed, two- way traders show an average labour productivity of 84.5K euro per worker, while domestics generate 37.2K euro per worker, only importers 62.5K and only exporters 55.4K.

D. The role of small and medium enterprises

41. The Italian business system is characterized by the high relevance of small and medium enterprises. As shown in Figure 9, micro-firms (1-10 workers) represent 95% of total business units. The prevalence is even higher in services, while in manufacturing, energy and mining and quarrying is slightly lower (respectively 81%, 85% and 78%).

42. Considering the composition of value added displayed in Figure 10, micro-firms account for 51% of the total value added, while 21% is produced by large enterprises (firms with more than 250 workers). Small (10-50 workers) and medium (50-250 workers) generate respectively 16% and 12% of total value added. This general set-up hides a strong sectoral heterogeneity. Indeed, while micro-firms account for over 70% of value added in other business services and personal services, and more that 50% in constructions and accommodation and restaurants, they represent only a small share of value added in manufacturing (15%), energy (17%) and mining and quarrying (7%). In these latter industries, the role of large enterprises is relevant: they account for 56% of value added in mining and quarrying, 32% in manufacturing and 57% in energy. Large firms have also an important role in trade (21%) and transportation (39%). Furthermore, in manufacturing a large share of value added is generated by small and medium enterprises, which account for slightly less than 30%.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

Figure 9 Number of business units composition by industry and size-class

Figure 10 Value added composition by industry and size-class

43. Finally, the size of firms is also relevant in analyzing under-ground economy. Indeed, about 88% of under-ground economy is connected with the activity of micro-firms (1-10 workers), while small (10- 50 workers) and medium (50-250 workers) enterprises account for, respectively, 11% and 2% of under- ground value added. The role of micro-firms in under- ground economy is particularly high in trade (94%), construction (91%), other business services (92%) and personal services (94%), while in manufacturing, mining and quarrying and accommodation and restaurants the role of small firms is also relevant (respectively 46%, 29% and 23%).

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

Figure 11 Underground value added composition by industry and size-class

IV. Conclusions

44. The increasing integration of markets for trade and FDIs, and the increasing relevance of GVCs strongly challenged the conventional framework of accounting for international trade and production processes. Furthermore, traditional sector-based SUT and/or IOT can hardly represent the progressively higher heterogeneity in the strategic and economic behaviors of different typologies of firms.

45. There is a large agreement about the conceptual dimensions along which this heterogeneity can be accounted for. In particular, governance status, trading status and size are considered as the main elements in the definition of the relevant typologies of business units. In this context, an extension of the customary SUT-IOT framework that considers these dimensions of heterogeneity would allow for obtaining a more granular, and reliable, representation of production processes.

46. This paper presented the pilot that Istat carried out in order to compile an eSUT framework for Italian economy. Indeed, the wide use of micro-data in the compilation of the main aggregates of National Accounts opens the room for obtaining the relevant information for the different profiles of business units. In particular, the pilot scheme is compiled considering 48 typologies of business units for each industry, where typologies are defined by interacting the three dimensions of heterogeneity.

47. A wide set of aggregates and structural variables are taken into account, ranging from output, intermediate costs and value added, to the number of firms, employment and international trade. On average, the pilot covers about 90% of the whole information, including non-observed economy and adjustment for exhaustiveness. Most aggregates are treated directly from micro-data, this assuring both a strong consistency between the pilot and the general National Accounts scheme and a good representation of production processes.

ECE/CES/GE.20/2023/15

48. The eSUT framework obtained from the pilot allows for analyzing a wide range of phenomena, ranging from the role of MNEs in Italian economy, to the relevance of internationalization and the heterogeneity of firms along size classes.

49. At this stage however, the compilation of a full extended scheme for Italian SUT is not completed. Indeed, relevant aggregates are not considered in the pilot, such as the imports and exports of services (including the treatment of merchanting and processing), illegal economy and conceptual adjustments (e.g. FISIM), further than the effect of the balancing of demand and supply.

50. The inclusion of these aggregates represents the next step in the pilot, in order to complete their allocation along the categories of business units. A second step is related to the breakdown by typology of products and the compilation of domestic final demand aggregates (final consumption, investments) within the eSUT framework. Furthermore, more complex definitions of typologies of business units (in terms of internationalization and size class, see footnotes 1 and 3) can be experimented. Finally, once the eSUT scheme is completed (including valuation matrices and taxes and subsidies), the aim is to convert eSUT into eIOT in order to obtain a framework for analyses and simulations.

TOWARDS THE COMPILATION OF eSUTs FOR ITALIAN ECONOMY

Geneva, April 25, 2023

MEETING OF THE GROUP OF EXPERTS ON NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

FEDERICO SALLUSTI

Istat | National Accounts STEFANIA CUICCHIO

o Introduction

o Structure of eSUTs for Italy

o Coverage

o Informative sources

o Allocation to typologies

o Preliminary analyses

o Conclusion and way forward

Outline

TOWARDS THE COMPILATION OF ESUTS FOR ITALIAN ECONOMY | SALLUSTI - CUICCHIO2

o In the last decades, the progressive emergence of global set up of production processes strongly challenged the conventional framework of accounting for international trade flows and production processes

o Traditional gross measures of imports and exports are now less informative, while the increasing heterogeneity in structure, strategies and economic features of business units is hardly captured by sector- based Supply and Use (SUTs) and/or Input-Output (IOTs) tables

o There is a wide agreement about the possibility that an extension of the traditional sector-based SUTs/IOTs scheme may represent a relevant improvement in accounting for firms’ heterogeneity and, at the same time, a bridge between the national and global perspectives in the analysis of production

o This paper shows the results of the pilot activity that Istat is carrying out to obtain eSUTs for Italy

o This work grounds on the wide availability of microdata related to business statistics, international trade and governance set-ups, which allows to obtain a granular representation of production processes.

o Three main patterns of firms heterogeneity are accounted for: governance status, trading status, size class

Introduction

3 PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM A PILOT ACTIVITY ON ESUTS IN ITALY | SALLUSTI - CUICCHIO

Structure of Italian eSUTs

4

GOVERNANCE STATUS

• Domestic • MNE with Italian GDC • MNE with foreign GDC

TRADING STATUS

• Only domestic market • Only importer • Only exporter • Two-way trader

SIZE CLASS

• 1-10 workers • 10-50 workers • 50-250 workers • 250 + workers

TYPOLOGIES

Regular Adjustment for exhaustiveness

AGGREGATES

+

• Production • Intermediate costs • Value added • Employment • Compensation of employees • Gross operating surplus • Number of firms • Exports of goods • Imports of goods

PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM A PILOT ACTIVITY ON ESUTS IN ITALY | SALLUSTI - CUICCHIO

Structure of Italian eSUTs

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Market status Governance status … … …

Size-class 1-10 10-50 50-250 250+ 1-10 10-50 50-250 250+ 1-10 10-50 50-250 250+ 1-10 10-50 50-250 250+ … 1-10 10-50 50-250 250+ … 1-10 10-50 50-250 250+ … Economic activity

1 … … …

2 … … …

3 … … … … … … …

55 … … …

56 … … …

57 … … … … … … …

96 … … …

97 … … …

98 … … …

Total … … …

Not internationalised Domestic Domestic MNE Foreign MNE Domestic

Total

Two-way traderOnly exporteOnly importer Domestic Domestic

o Interacting the dimensions of heterogeneity (3 governance statuses, 4 trading statuses, 4 size classes), 48 typologies of firms are obtained, where this breakdown is applied to the different aggregates for 98 economic activities

o Covering:

• Regular economy • Survey and census • Administrative data • Combined data • Imports and exports of goods

• Adjustment for NA exhaustiveness • Value added from un-registered workers (N1) • Business units outside the scope of SBS (N4) • Micro-firms, outworkers (N5) • Under-reporting (N6)

Coverage

6

o Not covering:

• Regular economy • Conceptual adjustments (ESA2010) • Imports and exports of services

• Adjustment for NA exhaustiveness • Illegal economy (N2) • Statistical deficiencies on data (N7)

PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM A PILOT ACTIVITY ON ESUTS IN ITALY | SALLUSTI - CUICCHIO

o eSUTs are built following a bottom-up approach that uses the information at the highest level of disaggregation in order to replicate the final NA data

Informative sources

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o Regular economy (including imports and exports of goods) is allocated to each strata at micro level

o Value added from un-registered workers (N1) is allocated to domestic units operating in domestic market by size class

o Units outside the scope of SBS (N4) is allocated to each strata at micro level

o Micro-firms, outworkers (N5) are allocated to domestic units operating in domestic market in the 1-5 workers size class

o Under-reporting (N6) is allocated to each strata at micro level

Allocation to typologies

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o MNEs represents 25% of value added (14% with Italian GDC, 11% with foreign GDC)

o Domestics are more vertically integrated (value added on production ratio)

o MNEs shows lower profits (GOS) on production ratio (0.16 vs. 0.23) with respect to domestics

Preliminary analysis | MNEs in Italian economy

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0.52

0.43

0.23

0.75

0.31

0.54

0.16 0.14

0.30

0.54

0.16

0.11

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

Vertical integration Profits on value added Profits on production Value added composition

Domestics Italian MNEs Foreign MNEs

o MNEs employ 20% of total workers

o There exists a relevant productivity gap between MNEs (over 94K euros vs. less than 73K per worker) and domestics

o Per-capita compensation is higher for domestics

o MNEs show a higher mark-up on labour costs

Preliminary analysis | MNEs characteristics

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72.9

45.8

94.8

43.9

94.8

43.8

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Labour productivity Per-capita compensation of employees

Domestics Italian MNEs Foreign MNEs

1.59

0.80

2.16

0.11

2.17

0.09

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

Mark-up on labour cost Workers composition

Domestics Italian MNEs Foreign MNEs

o MNEs account for 75% of international trade (sum of imports and exports), 44% for foreign MNEs and 31% for Italian MNEs

o Foreign MNEs show a higher degree of openness with respect to Italian MNEs (78% vs. 43%)

o Foreign MNEs have higher import and export propensity with respect to Italian MNEs

Preliminary analysis | MNEs and international trade

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0.07 0.10 0.11

0.25 0.28

0.22

0.43

0.31 0.37

0.59

0.78

0.44

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

Export propensity Import propensity International trade openness International trade composition

Domestics Italian MNEs Foreign MNEs

o 66% of overall value added is generated by firms that neither import nor export

o Two-way traders account for 25% of value added

o Two-way traders are more relevant in Manufacturing, Trade and Transportation

Preliminary analysis | Value added by market orientation

12 PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM A PILOT ACTIVITY ON ESUTS IN ITALY | SALLUSTI - CUICCHIO

0.72

0.20

0.90 0.87

0.47 0.58

0.89 0.88 0.92

0.66

0.01

0.03

0.06 0.04

0.10

0.15

0.06 0.03 0.04

0.05

0.17

0.09

0.01 0.03

0.07

0.05

0.02 0.02

0.01

0.04

0.10

0.68

0.02 0.06

0.36 0.23

0.03 0.08 0.04

0.25

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Mining and quarrying

Manufacturing Energy Construction Trade Transportation Accomodation and restaurants

Other business services

Personal services

Total

Domestics Only importers Only exporters Two way traders

o Two-way traders show the highest overall productivity (86,7K euro per worker)

o This holds for all sectors but Mining and quarrying, Energy and Transportation

o Only exporters are less productive than only exporters

Preliminary analysis | Productivity by market orientation

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197.4

37.2

160.3

40.0 31.1

47.4

22.1

113.9

44.1 59.3

109.0

84.5

147.4

74.3 81.9 77.2

51.4

123.3 113.6

86.7

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

Mining and quarrying

Manufacturing Energy Construction Trade Transportation Accomodation and restaurants

Other business services

Personal services

Total

Domestics Only importers Only exporters Two way traders

o 51% of value added is generated by micro enterprises

o 21% of value added is generated by large firms

o Industry and Transportation show the highest incidence of value added from larger firms

Preliminary analysis | Value added by size class

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0.07 0.15 0.17

0.59 0.48

0.28

0.56

0.73 0.74

0.51 0.25

0.27 0.10

0.26

0.19

0.17

0.30 0.07 0.09

0.16

0.12

0.27

0.16

0.10

0.11

0.16

0.07 0.06

0.08

0.120.56

0.32

0.57

0.06

0.21

0.39

0.08 0.14 0.09

0.21

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Mining and quarrying

Manufacturing Energy Construction Trade Transportation Accomodation and restaurants

Other business services

Personal services Total

1-10 workers 10-50 workers 50-250 workers 250 workers and more

o The pilot allowed to replicate a large part of the main NA aggregates by economic activity according to the proposed typologies of business units

o As it is, the eSUT pilot allows for analyzing interesting issues related to the patterns of the Italian business system, ranging from internationalization to the role of SMEs and MNEs

o Future developments aimed at completing the scheme should include:

• Representation of international trade in services (including merchanting and processing) from microdata • Inclusion of conceptual adjustments and balancing of SUTs • Disaggregation by product and representation of intermediate consumption and final demand (consumption and

investments) • Definition of eIOTs following the eSUTs disaggregation

Conclusion and way forward

15 PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM A PILOT ACTIVITY ON ESUTS IN ITALY | SALLUSTI - CUICCHIO

Thank you FEDERICO SALLUSTI | [email protected]

STEFANIA CUICCHIO | [email protected]

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland

Telephone: +41 (0)22 917 1234 (Palais des Nations)

ANNEX I

UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE CONFERENCE OF EUROPEAN STATISTICIANS Group of Experts on Measuring Poverty and Inequality 8-9 December 2022 Workshop on Harmonization of Poverty Statistics to Measure SDG 1 and 10 7 December 2022

Title of contribution Impact of 2022 high inflation on the poorest Italian households Author Name Federico Polidoro, Alessandro Brunetti Author Organization Istat (Italian national statistical Institute) Topic Impact of global shocks on poverty and inequality Summary: In Europe and in Italy, as in other countries, the unexpected raise of inflation, spread all over the world, is mainly driven by the huge increase of prices of Energy products that has been going affecting all the products of the basket and in particular the prices of food and beverages. The nature of these components (Energy and food), which consumption is difficult to reduce, implies that their relative weights are higher in the expenditure budget of the households with lower spending power with respect to that of the households with higher spending power. Since 2012 (with time series available since 2005) the Italian national statistical institute (Istat), regularly estimates and disseminates information about the impact of inflation on 5 different groups of households. Households are ranked by their expenditure value (derived from Italian HBS), from those with the lowest spending power to those with the highest one and then divided in 5 groups of the same dimension. Afterwards the weights of HICP basket are estimated for each of these groups by using HBS data and updated each year. Taking into account these weights, harmonized indices of consumer prices are compiled on monthly and then grouped on quarterly basis. In 2022 in a frame of general strong raise of inflation that is affecting all the households, its impact is clearly higher for the first group of households (with less spending power that means the poorest one) and lower for the fifth group (with more spending power that means the richest one). In the third quarter of 2022 the annual rate of change of HICP for the first group was equal to +11.6%, for the fifth one to +7.6% with a gap of four percentage point between the two (it was less than percentage point in the fourth quarter of 2021). The details and implications of these data are analyzed together with the methodology adopted. Moreover, some scenarios of the consequences on the monetary measures of Italian poverty are sketched.

Please select your preferred contribution (you may select both options): ☒ Presentation ☒ Paper

Европейская экономическая комиссия Организации Объединенных Наций Здание H, Дворец Наций, 1211 Женева-10, Швейцария

Телефон: +41 (0)22 917 1234 (Дворец Наций)

ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯ ОБЪЕДИНЕННЫХ НАЦИЙ ЕВРОПЕЙСКАЯ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ КОМИССИЯ КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ ЕВРОПЕЙСКИХ СТАТИСТИКОВ Группа экспертов по измерению бедности и неравенства, 8-9 декабря 2022 года Семинар по гармонизации статистики бедности для измерения прогресса в достижении ЦУР 1 и 10, 7 декабря 2022 года

Название доклада Влияние высокой инфляции 2022 года на беднейшие итальянские домохозяйства

Имя автора Федерико Полидоро, Алессандро Брунетти Организация Истат (Итальянский национальный институт статистики) Тема Влияние глобальных потрясений на бедность и неравенство

Резюме: В Европе и Италии, как и в других странах мира, неожиданный рост уровня инфляции по всему миру в основном вызван текущим огромным ростом цен на энергоносители, затронувшим все продукты корзины, в частности цены на продукты питания и напитки. Характер этих компонентов (энергия и продукты питания), потребление которых сложно сократить, подразумевает, что их относительный вес выше в структуре расходов домохозяйства с более низкой покупательной способностью по сравнению с домохозяйствами с более высокой покупательной способностью. Начиная с 2012 года (временные ряды доступны с 2005 года) Итальянский национальный институт статистики (Истат) проводит регулярную оценку и распространяет информацию о воздействии инфляции на 5 различных групп домохозяйств. Домохозяйства распределяются по 5 равным группам в зависимости от величины своих расходов (по данным итальянского ОБДХ) от домохозяйств с самой низкой покупательной способностью до домохозяйств с самой высокой покупательной способностью. Затем веса корзины ГИПЦ оцениваются для каждой из этих групп с помощью данных ОБДХ, и каждый год они обновляются. С учетом этих весов ежемесячно составляются гармонизированные индексы потребительских цен, а затем группируются поквартально. В 2022 году на фоне общего значительного роста инфляции, затронувшего все домохозяйства, влияние этого роста очевидно сильнее сказывается на первой группе домохозяйств (с меньшей покупательной способностью, что означает на наиболее бедных) и слабее – на пятой группе (с более высокой покупательной способностью, что означает на наиболее богатых). В третьем квартале 2022 года годовой темп изменения ГИПЦ для первой группы составил +11,6%, а для пятой группы +7,6% с разрывом между двумя группами в 4 процентных пункта (в четвертом квартале 2021 года этот разрыв составлял менее одного процентного пункта). Подробная информация об этих данных и возможные последствия анализируются вместе с использованной методикой. Кроме того, вкратце описаны некоторые сценарии последствий для измерения монетарных показателей бедности в Италии.

Выберите предпочтительный способ участия (можно выбрать оба варианта): ☒ Презентация ☒ Статья

IMPROVING STATISTICS ON REFUGEES AND ASYLUM SEEKERS: THE CASE OF ITALY

Istat | Dcdc

October 2022

CINZIA CONTI

o Cooperation

o Nsos Ministries

o Administrative data Statistical data

o Quality Timeliness

o Integration

o Coordination

International support (Regulations, guidelines, declaration)

Keywords and (false) dichotomies

CINZIA CONTI2

o The cooperation between Istat and the Italian Ministry of Interior started in 2007 with the Regulation (EC) No 862/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 July 2007 on Community statistics on migration and international protection

o The Regulation considerably boosted collaboration between Istat and the Ministry of interior, leading to the production of information based on integrated data from different sources.

o The stimulus of Zaragoza declaration on Integration and of Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund (AMIF) of European Commission.

o Cooperation coordination and armonization in data production

o Since 2007 Istat and the Ministry of Interior participate jointly to commissions, task forces and working groups about several migration aspects

Cooperation for improving statistics: the Italian context

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE3

The cooperation between Istat and the Ministry of Interior was oriented to:

• Promote the awareness of the use of administrative data as statistical data

• Collect better quality information (structuring and changing the collection system considering also the statistical use of the data)

• Full exploitation of the administrative data through the integration of microdata from various sources

• Study integration using a longitudinal approach

• Carry out coordinated sample survey about special issues (integration)

Administrative data and statistical data

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE4

• The “refugees crises” catalyzed the attention on the presence of asylum seekers and refugees in Italy

• The mass media attention was focused on the emergence and on the numbers of new arrivals

• Statistics about migrations not enough

• Need of information about the stay and the integration process

Learnig the lesson: Statistics about refugees and asylum seekers

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE5

New residence permits issued for reasons of the stay, 2011-2020, Italy, absolute value

Beyond the definition and the quantification of the presence: Measuring integration (par 5, p.81) and Indicators of integration and the satisfaction of immediate and ongoing needs

The International Recommendations helped Istat in fixing the priorities and in enhancing the cooperation with administrative bodies on the issues of the integration of refugees and asylum seekers

Exploiting administrative data for studying the integration of refugees:

• Integrate data coming from the same source

• Integrate data coming from different sources

• Integrate administrative data and surveys data

• Longitudinal approach

The International Recommendations on Refugee Statistics

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE6

Improving the collection and exploiting the available data

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE7

Immigrants from Mali registered in Italy in the period between 2012 and 2015 by region/province of birth

Immigrants from Nigeria registered in Italy in the period between 2012 and 2015 by region/province of birth

Integrating data of the same source

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE8

Non EU citizens entered in Italy in 201 and 2016 seeking international protection holding a residence permit in 2021 for

reason of the permit (2021), percentages

Integrating the data of different sources

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE9

Migrants arrived in 2012 and in 2016, still present and enrolled in the Population Register at the beginning of 2021, for the reason of the first

residence permit, Italy, percentages

Migrants arrived in 2012 that live in a different province at the beginning of 2021, for the reason

of the first residence permits, percentage Italy

10

Next steps: Integration of Refugees

Definition of integration?

“The integration of refugees presents some differences when compared with the integration of general migrants, such as labour migrants (many of whom enter their new country with a job offer). Refugees have particular challenges compared to general migrants”

“Broadly speaking, integration can be understood as the gradual inclusion of refugees, asylum seekers, and other refugee related groups in their host country. This entails the progressive enjoyment of rights, increasing access to national services and social and cultural networks, and an absence of discrimination. Ideally, this process results in full integration, which occurs when refugees and other persons of concern enjoy the same rights and access to national services and systems as nationals and non-refugee permanent residents”

Shared guidelines could help

International Recommendations on Refugee Statistics (IRRS)

11

Dimensions of integration

Dimensions: “Legal, Economic, Social and cultural, civil and political” and more specifically: Legal indicators, Civil-political indicators, Demographic and migration indicators, Education indicators, Economic indicators, Social inclusion indicators and Health indicators

International Recommendations on Refugee Statistics (IRRS)

Project with UNHCR in Italy: integration of data of different sources

12

The Ukraine crisis: a new challange

New important flows of asylum seekers towards Italy (Temporary protection)

Very peculiar characteristics: women and children

Inclusion of Ukraine Children in school: project with World Bank

Temporary protection applications in Italy (registered between March- September 2022)

Next steps

TITOLO PRESENTAZIONE | AUTORE13

Developed statistical system not always consider refugees and asylum seekers as a target population

Cooperation for armonization of data coming from different administrative sources

Cooperation for carrying out a jointly (Istat and Ministry of Interior) report about intergration with a focus about asylum seekers

Indicators on settled refugees and asylum seekiers suggested in international Recommendations Refugee statistics: marital status and years of residence (available),

citizenship, mixed marriages, participation in education (under construction)

We need the support of an international network to underline that asylum seekers and refugees deserve specific statistics and indicators with a longitudinal approach

Source: International Recommendations on Refugee statistics

УЛУЧШЕНИЕ СТАТИСТИЧЕСКИХ ДАННЫХ О БЕЖЕНЦАХ И ЛИЦАХ, ИЩУЩИХ УБЕЖИЩА: ПРИМЕР ИТАЛИИ

Истат (Национальный институт статистики) | Dcdc

Октябрь 2022 г.

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

o Сотрудничество

o Национальные статистические управления Министерства

o Административные данные Статистические данные

o Качество Своевременность

o Интеграция

o Координация

Международная поддержка (регламенты, руководства, декларация)

Ключевые слова и (ложные) дихотомии

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ2

o Сотрудничество между Национальным институтом статистики (Истат) и Министерством внутренних дел Италии началось в 2007 г. с Регламента (ЕС) № 862/2007 Европейского парламента и Совета от 11 июля 2007 г. о статистике Сообщества по миграции и международной защите.

o Регламент значительно укрепил сотрудничество между Истат и Министерством внутренних дел, что привело к получению информации на основе интегрированных данных из разных источников.

o Стимул Сарагосской декларации об интеграции и Фонда убежища, миграции и интеграции (AMIF) Европейской комиссии.

o Сотрудничество координация и согласование в производстве данных

o С 2007 года Истат и Министерство внутренних дел совместно участвуют в комиссиях, целевых группах и рабочих группах по нескольким аспектам миграции.

Сотрудничество для улучшения статистики: контекст Италии

3 ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

Сотрудничество между Истат и Министерством внутренних дел было направлено на :

• Повышение осведомленности об использовании административных данных в качестве статистических данных

• Сбор более качественной информации (структурирование и изменение системы сбора с учетом также статистического использования данных)

• Полное использование административных данных за счет интеграции микроданных из различных источников

• Исследование интеграции с использованием лонгитюдного подхода

• Проведение скоординированного выборочного обследования по особым вопросам (интеграция)

Административные данные и статистические данные

4 ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

• «Кризис беженцев» привлек внимание к присутствию лиц, ищущих убежища, и беженцев в Италии.

• Внимание СМИ было приковано к появлению и количеству новоприбывших.

• Статистики о миграциях недостаточно

• Необходима информация о пребывании и процессе интеграции

Усвоение урока: статистика о беженцах и лицах, ищущих убежища

5

Новые виды на жительство, выданные по причинам пребывания, 2011-2020 гг., Италия, абсолютное

значение

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

Помимо определения и количественной оценки присутствия: измерение интеграции (п. 5, стр. 81) и индикаторы интеграции и удовлетворения неотложных и текущих потребностей

Международные рекомендации помогли Истат определить приоритеты и укрепить сотрудничество с административными органами по вопросам интеграции беженцев и лиц, ищущих убежища.

Использование административных данных для изучения интеграции беженцев :

• Интеграция данных, поступающих из одного источника

• Интеграция данных, поступающих из разных источников

• Интеграция административных данных и данных опросов

• Лонгитюдный подход

Международные рекомендации по статистике беженцев

6 ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

Улучшение сбора и использования имеющихся данных

7

Иммигранты из Мали, зарегистрированные в Италии в период с 2012 по 2015 гг., по регионам/провинциям рождения

Иммигранты из Нигерии, зарегистрированные в Италии в период с 2012 по 2015 гг., по регионам/провинциям рождения

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

Интеграция данных из одного источника

8

Неграждане ЕС, въехавшие в Италию в 2015 и 2016 годах в поисках международной защиты, имеющие вид на жительство в 2021 году на основании разрешения (2021 год), в процентах

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

Интеграция данных из разных источников

9

Мигранты, прибывшие в 2012 и 2016 гг., все еще присутствующие и зарегистрированные в

Регистре населения на начало 2021 года по причине первого вида на жительство, в Италии, в

процентах

Мигранты, прибывшие в 2012 г., проживающие в другой провинции на начало

2021 г., по причине первого вида на жительство, в Италии, в процентах

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

10

Следующие шаги: интеграция беженцев

Определение интеграции?

«Интеграция беженцев имеет некоторые отличия по сравнению с интеграцией обычных мигрантов, таких как трудовые мигранты (многие из которых приезжают в свою новую страну с предложением работы). Беженцы сталкиваются с особыми проблемами по сравнению с обычными мигрантами».

«В широком смысле под интеграцией можно понимать постепенное включение беженцев, лиц, ищущих убежища, и других групп, связанных с беженцами, в принимающую их страну. Это влечет за собой постепенное осуществление прав, расширение доступа к национальным услугам и социальным и культурным сетям, а также отсутствие дискриминации. В идеале этот процесс приводит к полной интеграции, которая происходит, когда беженцы и другие релевантные лица пользуются теми же правами и доступом к национальным службам и системам, что и граждане страны и лица, не являющиеся беженцами, постоянно проживающие в стране».

Общие рекомендации могут помочь

Международные рекомендации по статистике беженцев (IRRS)

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

11

Сферы интеграции

Сферы: «Правовая, экономическая, социальная и культурная, гражданская и политическая», а более конкретно: правовые показатели, гражданско-политические показатели, демографические и миграционные показатели, показатели образования, экономические показатели, показатели социальной интеграции и показатели здоровья.

Проект с УВКБ ООН в Италии: интеграция данных из разных источников

Международные рекомендации по статистике беженцев (IRRS)

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

12

Украинский кризис: новый вызов

Новые важные потоки лиц, ищущих убежища в Италии (Временная защита)

Особые характеристики: женщины и дети

Инклюзия украинских детей в школу: проект со Всемирным Банком

Заявления о временной защите в Италии (зарегистрированные в период с марта по сентябрь 2022 г.)

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ

Следующие шаги

13

Созданная статистическая система не всегда рассматривает беженцев и лиц, ищущих убежища, в качестве целевой группы

Сотрудничество для согласования данных, поступающих из различных административных источников

Сотрудничество для подготовки совместного (Истат и Министерства внутренних дел) отчета об интеграции с акцентом на лиц, ищущих убежища

Показатели закрепившихся беженцев и лиц, ищущих убежища, предложенные в международных Рекомендациях Статистика беженцев: семейное положение и годы проживания (имеются), гражданство, смешанные браки, участие в образовании (в разработке)

Нам необходима поддержка международной сети, чтобы подчеркнуть, что лица, ищущие убежища, и беженцы заслуживают конкретных статистических данных и показателей с лонгитюдным подходом.

Источник: Международные рекомендации по статистике беженцев.

ЧИНЗИЯ КОНТИ